Pocket Book
for the
Leather
Technologist
Fourth edition, revised and enlarged
BASF Aktiengesellschaft
67056 Ludwigshafen
Germany
Preface
In this fourth edition of our Pocket Book for the Leather Technologist, the
content was carefully revised and updated. Two new chapters “Leather
goods” and “Fur” were added. The chapter “First aid” was cancelled.
Please use the appropriate medical literature if you need information on
this issue.
We have updated the information on the properties, use and nature of
our products for the leather industry. The principal methods used in
leather production are briefly described. The information given in the
chapter on types of raw skins is intended to serve only as a guide. The
chapter “Safety and Environmental Protection” was completely revised
and supplemented by detailed information on the safety data sheet.
We hope that this carefully revised and enlarged edition will meet with the
same approval as the preceding editions and that the practical tanner
and others interested in the leather business will find this volume a helpful
and rapid source of reference for the variety of products that we offer for
the production of leather.
Nevertheless, it is possible that you may have some further questions.
We have issued a range of publications that contain further information
on a variety of topics. More detailed information on our products is con-
tained in our pattern cards and Technical Information leaflets with exam-
ples of application. Our technical staff will be pleased to advise you
personally on any queries that you may have.
Visit us also at: http://www.basf.com/leather
3
In presenting this pocket book, we cannot claim to serve in any but an
advisory capacity and can undertake no liability.
The names of our products are, as a rule, registered trade marks. No
significance may be attached to the absence of a sign to this effect
against any product mentioned in this book.
We know of no ill effects that could have resulted from using the BASF
products mentioned in this book for the purpose for which they are inten-
ded and from processing them in accordance with current practice.
According to the experience we have gained up to now and other infor-
mation at our disposal, our products do not exert any harmful effects on
health, provided that they are used properly, due attention is given to the
precautions necessary for handling chemicals and the information and
advice given in our Safety Data Sheets are observed.
5
Contents
Coloured pages
Colour Chapter Page
white Contents 7
yellow Raw skin – Pickling 17
green Tanning/retanning 81
red Emulsifiers – Fatliquoring – Dyeing – Drying 129
blue Finishing 173
yellow Leather goods – Fur – Test methods 209
green Indicators – Weight and area – 273
Safety and environmental protection
red Measures and weights – Chemical compounds 313
blue Density – Technical Literature – Addresses 369
white Index •••
6
Contents
Raw skin 17
Structure of skin and hair 17
Amino acids 18
Bridge linkages in proteins 20
Physical and chemical properties of collagen and keratin 22
Diagram of hide sections 25
Diagram of hide sections for the tanner 26
Substance of raw hide 27
Rawstock 28
Common rawstock terms 28
Principal raw hide and skin defects 29
Commercial classification of hides and skins 30
A. Cattle hides, calf skins, sheep skins, goat skins 30
Germany (similar to Switzerland, Austria) 30
International raw stock and leather market 32
Other European countries 33
North America 33
South America 34
North Africa 35
South Africa 36
West Africa/East Africa 37
Asia Minor/China 38
Japan/India, Pakistan 39
Thailand/Indonesia 41
Australia 42
New Zealand 43
B. Pig skins 44
C. Fish skins 44
D. Reptiles 44
E. Other types of hides and skins 45
Raw stock inventories; production of raw hides and skins 46
7
Contents
Curing and disinfection of raw hides and skins 48
Water 50
Principal substances contained in water 50
Water hardness 50
Water softening 53
Vessels for the beamhouse 56
Flow chart from raw stock to production of pelts 57
Soaking 58
Methods of accelerating soaking 58
BASF soaking auxiliaries 59
Depilation, opening up the skin 60
The most commonly used depilation and liming methods 60
Chemicals for depilation and liming 63
Liming and painting auxiliaries 68
Deliming 70
BASF deliming agents 70
Definition of deliming value, buffering capacity, lime dissolving value 71
Strength comparison of BASF deliming agents 72
Other deliming agents 73
Bating 74
Enzymes in bating agents 74
BASF bating agents 75
8
Contents
Degreasing 76
Degreasing methods 76
The most commonly used degreasing agents 77
BASF degreasing agents 77
Pickling of pelts 78
Pickling methods 78
Pickling acids 79
Theoretically corresponding parts by weight of various acids
and deliming agents 80
Tanning and retanning 81
Purpose of tanning 81
Cross-linking reactions between skin substance and tanning agents 82
Shrinking temperature of hide and leather 83
Tanning methods 84
Amounts of tanning agent required for various types of leather 85
Vegetable tanning 86
Structure of vegetable tanning agents 86
Vegetable tanning materials 87
Vegetable tannin extracts (liquid, solid, powder) 91
BASF products supporting vegetable tanning 93
Mineral tanning 94
Structure of mineral tanning agents 94
BASF mineral tanning agents 94
Amounts of mineral tanning agents in % for x % Cr2O3 and Al2O3 96
Other mineral tanning salts 97
Basicity 98
Masking of chrome tanning agents 100
Reduced chrome liquors prepared from potassium or sodium
dichromate 101
9
Contents
Special BASF tanning auxiliaries 103
Flow chart of chrome leather tanning 104
Other tanning methods 105
Wet white tannage 105
Selected BASF products for wet white leather 105
Important parameters in wet white tanning 107
Flow chart of wet white tanning 108
Oil tannage 108
Neutralization (deacidification) of leather 109
Purpose/procedure 109
Neutralizing agents (general) 110
Theoretically corresponding parts by weight of various alkalis
and neutralizing agents 111
BASF neutralizing agents 112
Retanning 113
Structures of aromatic and aliphatic retanning agents 113
Some basic constituents of synthetic tanning agents 114
BASF synthetic tanning and retanning agents 115
Polymeric retanning agents 117
Resin tanning agents 118
BASF aldehyde tanning agents 119
BASF oil tanning agents 119
Tanning and retanning auxiliaries 120
Bleaching and fixation 121
Bleaching methods 121
BASF bleach-tanning agents and bleaching auxiliaries 122
Fixing agents for vegetable tannins and syntans 122
Loading agents 122
10
Contents
Tanner’s tools 123
Tannery machines 124
Tanning/retanning – Glossary 126
Emulsifiers and wetting agents 129
Chemical classification 129
Emulsion types 129
The main BASF emulsifiers and wetting agents for the leather
and fur industries 130
Fatliquoring 131
The principal basic fatliquoring substances 131
Characteristic values of the main fatty substances 132
Classification of leather fatliquoring products 136
Fatliquoring methods 136
BASF fatliquor range 137
Analysis of leather fatliquoring agents 140
General structure of fatliquors 143
Courses of reaction in the production of fatliquors 144
Composition of natural oils and fats 145
Percentages of fatty acids in some oils and fats 146
147
Water-repellent treatment of leather
The main water-repellents (general) 147
BASF water-repellents 148
Drum Dyeing 150
Colour spectrum 150
Chromatic triangle for colour matching 151
CIE chromaticity diagram 152
CIELAB colour system 154
11
Contents
Classification of leather dyes 155
BASF products for drum dyeing 156
Selected Lurazol and Luganil Dyes with particularly good
penetration 161
BASF basic dyes 161
Dyeing auxiliaries 162
Dyeing methods 164
Parameters of dyeing in the production of high-quality leathers 165
Through-feed dyeing machine 168
Drying 169
Drying methods for leather 169
Air humidity 170
Machines for dry finishing – operating principles 171
Flow chart of processes from wet blue to finishing 172
Finishing 173
Classification of finishes 173
General structure of finish 175
Leather finishes and dyes 176
Brightening dyes 176
BASF dyes for spraying, curtain coating and printing,
and for shading finishes 176
Pigment colours 177
BASF pigment preparations 178
Thermoplastic binders 180
The main basic substances for the production of polymer binders 182
Base coating agents and binders 183
Top coats and laquers 193
BASF finishing auxiliaries 196
12
Contents
Solvents and diluents used in finishing 200
Finishing machines 202
Terms applied to some types of leather 205
Leather goods 209
Shoe leather 209
Automotive leather 211
Upholstery leather 213
Garment leather 215
Fur 217
Fur skin, general 217
Fur dressing 218
BASF products for fur dressing 218
Fur dyeing 222
BASF products for fur dyeing 223
Nappalan – flesh side finishing 226
Leather testing methods 227
IUC/IUP-methods 227
ALCA analytical methods compared to ASTM methods 232
Preparation of samples for analysis 234
Calculation and evaluation of test results 237
Quality requirements for the main types of leather 242
Testing of leather dyes and leather dyeings 252
IUF methods 252
Testing of leather dyes 255
Testing of dye solutions 256
Testing of leather dyeings 258
Testing of leather finishes 264
Important dimensions for analytics 271
Suppliers of standard test methods 272
13
Contents
Indicators, pH Value 273
pH Value 273
Common indicators 274
Determining the charge on leather surfaces with charge indicator 276
Charge relations on pelts and leathers 277
Relations between weight, area and yield in leather production 278
Weight designations used in leather production 278
Conversion factors for various curing stages of hides and skins 280
Area and weight yields 281
Leather production costs 282
Materials required for the production of various types of leather 283
Safety and environmental protection 285
Safety Data Sheets 285
Regulations concerning the transportation of materials classified
as dangerous goods 291
Danger symbols – marking according to the regulation on
dangerous Goods (GefStoffV) 292
Danger labels prescribed by IMDG Code 293
Some basic terms concerning the safe handling of chemicals 295
Environmental protection 297
Waste water treatment 299
Water-polluting substances 300
Types of sludge and treatment 301
Wastes 302
Regulations concerning direct or indirect discharge of effluents 304
Airborne emissions 306
Hydrogen sulfide hazards in the leather industry 306
Some basic terms used in environmental protection 308
14
Contents
Standard physical units of measurement 313
SI base units 313
SI derived units with special names and symbols 315
Units outside SI with special names and symbols 317
Definitions of various derived units 319
Conversion tables 320
Units of length 322
Conversion table – metres and yards 323
Conversion table – millimetres to inches 324
Conversion of inches to millimetres and leather substance in
ounces 325
Units of area 326
Conversion table – square metres to square feet 327
Conversion table – square feet to square metres 328
Units of volume 329
Conversion table – litres and gallons (Brit. and US) 331
Units of weight 333
Conversion table – kilograms (kg) and pounds (lbs) 334
Conversion table – grams (g) and ounces (oz) 335
Conversion tables – Imp./US units and SI units 336
Formulae 339
Determination of some areas and perimeters 339
Determination of some volumes 340
Optimum r.p.m. of processing drums for the appropriate load
volume with non-carrying float lengths 344
Tables for determining the correct nominal diameters of air
pressure reducers and water separators in compressed air
spraying units 345
Conversion table for temperature readings 348
Conversion table for density and Baumé, barkometer and
twaddle hydrometer readings 352
Rules for mixing 354
15
Contents
Elements 355
Symbol, atomic number and atomic weight of elements 355
Chemical compounds 359
Molecular weight, formula and solubility in water of some
chemical compounds 359
Production of a certain relative humidity 365
Definition of mixtures of substances 366
Terms expressing interaction with water 367
Density and conversion tables 369
Alkalis 369
Acids 372
Salts 384
Technical literature 390
Books 390
Selection of journals 393
394
Abbreviations of commercial terms
World time zones 398
Addresses 400
Index •••
16
Raw skin
Raw skin
Structure of skin
hair or wool corneous layer ca. 1% of
granulous layer
epidermis total thickness
of skin
mucous layer
grain
papillary layer;
empty spaces left
by hair papillae, corium or cutis (dermis);
sweat and fat ca. 85% of total thickness of
glands raw skin; the actual leather
making material
reticular layer
subcutis (hydrodermis), ca. 15% of total thickness
of raw skin; removed in mechanical beamhouse
operations.
fat, flesh, blood vessels
Structure of hair
cortex
medulla
protofibril
cuticle
shaft follicle funnel
cuticle
sebaceous epidermis fibril
gland
duct of a
sweat gland cortex
epithelial root medulla
tissue
connective
tissue
bulb
Cross-section of hair shaft
papilla
17
Raw skin
Fibrous structure of true skin (collagen)
Fibre bundles composed of fibres (20 – 200 μm in diameter) which in turn
consist of elementary fibres (about 5 μm in diameter), and these of fibrils
(10 – 100 nm in diameter), and these of microfibrils (about 5 nm in dia-
meter), and these of macromolecules.
The collagen molecules (tropocollagen) are about 280 nm long, about
1.5 nm in diameter and have a molecular weight of about 300000. They
are composed of three polypeptide chains which are twisted together in
form of a helix (triple helix) and which consist of amino acids that are
linked together by peptide bonds.
1 kg raw skin has a reactive inner fibre surface area of 1000 – 2500 m2.
Amino acids
The amino acids are the constituents of proteins. They contain the amino
group -NH2, the carboxyl group -COOH and the radical -R. The general
formula is:
R
|
H2N–CH–COOH
The radical -R characterizes the amino acids and classifies them into the
following groups:
– Non-polar, non-reactive = Hydrogen, aliphatic compounds,
aromatics.
= -OH, -SH, -COOH, -COO–,
– Polar, reactive
-CO-NH-, -CO-NH2, -COOR, NH2,
NH3+
There are 20 different amino acids in the structure of collagen and
21 – 22 in that of keratin. Typical of collagen is the presence of hydroxy-
proline (HYP) and glycine (GLY); characteristic of keratin is the presence
of the sulfur-containing amino acid cystine (CYS).
18
Raw skin
Amino acid Radical -R Abbre- Frequency in
viation collagen wool
Glycine -H Gly ++++ +
Ala +++ +
Alanine -CH3
-CH-(CH3)2 Val + +
Valine
-CH2-CH-(CH3)2 Leu + +
Leucine
-CH-(CH3)-CH2CH3 Ileu + +
Isoleucine
Phenylalanine Phe + +
– CH2 –
-CH2-CH2-S-CH3 Met (+) +
Methionine
-CH2-OH Ser + ++
Serine
Thr + +
Threonine -CH(OH)-CH3
Tyrosine Tyr (+) +
– CH2 – – OH
-CH2-SH Cys – ++++
Cysteine
-CH2-S-S—CH2CH-COOH (Cys)2 – +++
Cystine
l
NH2
Aspartic acid -CH2-COOH Asp + ++
-CH2-CO-NH2 Asn + ++
Asparagine
-CH2-CH2-COOH Glu ++ ++
Glutamic acid
-CH2-CH2-CO-NH2 Gln ++ ++
Glutamine
-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-NH2 Lys + +
Lysine
-CH2-CH2-CH(OH)-CH2-NH2 Hyl + +
Hydroxylysine
-(CH2)3NHC(NH)-NH2 Arg ++ +
Arginine
Histidine His + +
– CH2 – C = CH
NH
N CH
Tryptophane Trp – +
– CH2 –
N
19
Raw skin
Amino acid Chemical structure Abbre- Frequency in
viation collagen wool
Proline Pro +++ +
CH2
CH2
H 2C
CH
HN COOH
Hydroxyproline Hyp ++ –
CHOH
CH2
H2C
CH
HN COOH
Structure of a polypeptide chain of amino acids (AA)
Peptide
O H group
O H
NH2 – CH – C + N – CH – COOH NH2 – CH – C – N –CH – COOH + H2O
OH H
R1 R2 R1 R2
AS + AS = peptide
Multiple peptide linkages (n) give polypeptides in form of long chains (n)
for collagen about 1000.
OH
Alanine Glycine Serine
CH3 O H O CH2 O
H
H H
N H C – OH = Polypeptide
N H C N H C C
C C chain
C C C
H–N H C N H C N H C
H H
H
(CH2)4 (CH2)2 H
O O O
NH2 COOH
Lysine Glutamic acid Glycine
N-terminal AS –– Ala – Lys – Gly ... //... Glu – Ser – Gly <– C-terminal AA
> –
Bridge linkages in proteins
Cross-linking bridges decisively influence the structure, stability, reaction
capacity and overall behaviour of proteins. They may occur within the
peptide chain (intrachain longitudinal cross-linkage) or between two or
several adjacent peptide chains (interchain transverse cross-linkage).
20
Raw skin
1. Principal valence linkages (covalent linkage)
a. Disulfide bridges of cystine
OC
HC – CH2 – S
NH
CO
OC
OC
HC – CH2 – S – S – CH2 – CH
HC – CH2 – S
NH
NH
NH
intrachain longitudinal interchain transverse
cross-linkage cross-linkage
b. Ester linkage bridges between carboxyl and hydroxy groups in side
chains
NH NH
(Asp + Ser)
CH – CH2 – CO – O – CH2 – CH
CO CO
c. Side chain peptide bridge linkages between the acid and the basic
amino acids
NH NH
(Asp + Lys)
CH – CH2 – CO – NH – (CH2)4 – CH
CO CO
21
Raw skin
2. Secondary valence linkages (non-covalent linkage)
a. Hydrogen bridge linkages between peptide groups or between side
chains and peptide groups
R – CH C=O R – CH
.... ....
C=O H–N C=O HO – R – CH
H–N
H–N CH – R
b. Ionic linkage between charged side chains (formation of electrovalent
salt bridges)
OC CO
NH2 O
HC – (CH2)3 – NH – C C – (CH2)2 – CH
+ –
NH2 O
HN NH
Glu
Arg
c. Hydrophobic (non-polar) bridge linkages between hydrocarbon side
chains
NH H3C – CH
CH –– CH3 CO
NH
CO
Cross-linking reactions with tanning agents see under chapter “Tanning”.
Physical and chemical properties
1. Collagen
– Whitish, hard and brittle in the dry state.
– Insoluble in cold water and organic solvents.
– Water absorption up to 70 % on the tissue weight; partly deposited in
form of water of hydration or capillary water.
– Water vapour absorption up to 50 % on the collagen weight. Decisive
advantages over synthetic replacement materials.
– Preservation by dehydration is possible.
22
Raw skin
– With continuous heating in the presence of water, the fibres shrink
to one third of their original length and begin to cement together
irreversibly.
– Collagen shows minimum swelling at the isoelectric point.
– Dilute acids and alkalis cause swelling due to the charge, i. e. volume
and weight increase owing to higher water uptake (reversible, almost
no change in structure of collagen).
Increase in temperature and concentration and extension of time
result in swelling due to hydrolysis (only partially reversible).
– Hydrotropic substances enhance swelling and lower the cementing
temperature, the ones with strong polarity render collagen soluble.
2. Keratin
– Characteristic sulfur content of 3 – 5 % (disulfide bridge of cystine).
– Hydrolytically splittable by reduction and oxidation.
>
– S – S – + 2H –– 2 – SH
Hofmeister or lyotropic series
The Hofmeister or lyotropic series mark the swelling effect of neutral salts
on proteins. The effect of the anion is more pronounced than that of the
cation.
Cationic series: Calcium – strontium – barium – magnesium –
lithium – ammonium – sodium – potassium
Anionic series: Rhodanide – iodide – bromide – nitrate –
chloride – acetate – sulfate – thiosulfate
>
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
dehydrating, deswelling, coagulating
<
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
peptising, promoting swelling, dissolving
23
Raw skin
Proteins of animal skin
1. Globular proteins (ca. 3.5 %)
a. Albumines
b. Globulines removed in beamhouse
c. Various proteides operations
and melanines
2. Fibrous proteins
a. Collagen (ca. 98 %) structural substance for
b. Elastin (ca. 1 %) leather making
c. Keratin (epidermis, hair)
Chemical composition of proteins
45 – 55 % carbon
6 – 8 % hydrogen
19 – 25 % oxygen
16 – 19 % nitrogen
0.5 – 2.5 % sulfur, phosphorus, iron, bromine, chlorine
Composition of animal skin
Water ca. 65 %
Proteins ca. 33 %
Mineral matter ca. 0.5 %
Fatty substances 2– 6 % (cattle, calf)
2–10 % (goat)
5–30 % (sheep)
24
Raw skin
Diagram of hide sections
cheek
cheek face
fore-
fore-
shank
shank
head
breast breast
shoulder
flank flank
tip tip
back
belly belly
flank flank
shell
butt edge hind shank
hind shank butt edge tail
1. Shell, back and butt edge = bend or butt
2. Shoulder, head, cheeks and face = neck
3. Belly, flank, foreshank and hind shank = flank
25
Raw skin
Diagram of hide sections for the tanner
D
C
E
B
A
A = Side (half of a whole hide)
B = Butt (half of a butt = bend)
C = Half back (2 x C = back)
D = Shoulder (including neck and head)
E = Belly (including shanks)
Butt ca. 45 – 55 %
referring to whole
Shoulder ca. 20 – 25 % surface area or
total weight of hide
Belly ca. 20 – 25 %
26
Raw skin
Substance of raw hide
Substance = structure of the hide with regard to thickness, fibre strength
and fibre texture.
3 4 3 4
shoulder
butt
3 3 2.5 2.5
2 2
2
flank
Cow hide = poor substance, thin loose fibre texture (dependent on
number of calves produced)
6 5 6
5
butt shoulder
5 5 5 5
3
flank 3
3
Ox hide = good substance, uniform thickness, tight fibre texture
5 4 4 7
shoulder
butt
5 4 4 5
flank 5 6 5
Bull hide = poor substance; loose fibre texture
(The numbers in the sketches indicate the approximate thickness of the
hide in mm)
27
Rawstock
Common rawstock terms
Bastard skins Sheepskins with goat-like hair structure.
Crust Light leather which has not been further processed
after tanning but has been merely dried out: usually
vegetable but sometimes chrome or combination
tanned.
Cuirots Sweated, painted or limed, dried sheep skins.
Culatte In Germany the rear part of a cattle hide comprising the
butt with the side parts (shoulder and upper side parts
removed). Sold chiefly in the form of crust leather.
Domestic hides The hides of cattle reared mostly in stalls.
Kip The hide of the Southeast Asiatic zebu.
Offal Shoulder and flank parts cut away from the butt.
Pelt General term for unhaired skins and hides (after liming
and up to tanning). Also applied to shearlings in the
raw state.
Pickled pelts Pelts which have been pretreated with a solution of
common salt and acid for tanning with mineral tanning
salts. Pelts which have been pretreated with high con-
centrations of salt and acid are marketed in this form.
Pickled skivers Thin grain splits of sheep skins which have been
treated with a solution of common salt and acid and
are marketed in this form.
Sweated, painted or limed and dried sheep skins.
Slats
Wet blue Term for all chrome tanned and still moist leathers.
Chrome-free, pretanned leather.
Wet white
Wild hides The hides of wild grazing cattle mainly from South
America, Asia, Africa and Australia.
28
Rawstock
Principal raw hide and skin defects
• Mechanical injuries
Brand marks, barbed wire scratches, holes and scratches caused by
thorns, curry-comb scratches. Holes caused by prods and dung
forks, injuries caused by horns, holes in the grain caused by sharp
awns of plants, chafe marks.
• Defects caused by diseases
Warts, ulcers, skins diseases, damage to the grain and destruction of
the tissue by parasitic fungi attack.
• Damage caused by corrosion
Blind grain to rough, open grain caused by the corrosive action of
dung and urine.
• Damage caused by parasites
Warble damage, tick marks, hornification and recesses (scab) and
holes caused by mites, lice and nematodes.
• Flaying defects
Butcher cuts, grain damage caused by flaying machines.
• Curing faults
Salt stains, putrefaction, discolorations caused by bacteria, mould
stains, iron stains, beetle damage, drying defects (cementing, self-
splitting).
29
Rawstock
Commercial classification of hides and
skins
A. Cattle hides, calf skins, sheep skins, goat skins
Germany (similar to Switzerland, Austria)
Domestic cattle hides: heifers, cows, oxen, bulls.
Ways of curing:
a. Long-term curing with pure common salt.
b. Short-term curing (marketing of fresh hides) by air-cooling or covering
with crushed ice.
Sold by green weight.
Commercial classification: North German hides = lowland breeds
South German hides = highland breeds
Allgäu hides = brown cattle/grey cattle
Weight classes: up to 14.5 kg
15 – 19.5 kg
20 – 24.5 kg
25 – 29.5 kg
30 – 39.5 kg
40 – 49.5 kg
50 – 59.5 kg
60 kg/plus
Average weight and size: 36 – 39 kg/3.25 – 4.20 m2 per hide
Grasser skins: up to 10 kg
10 kg/plus
Calf skins: up to 4.5 kg (light)
4.5 – 7.5 kg (medium)
7.5 kg/plus (heavy or veal skins)
number of skins over 10 kg in one lot must
be specified.
Horse hides: exclusively salted, sold by size (measured from root of tail to
ears).
up to 179 cm
180 – 199 cm also sold separately as
200 – 219 cm shoulders and shells
220/plus cm
30
Rawstock
Foals: up to 150 cm
Donkeys, mules: 150/plus cm
Sheep skins: Mainly wet-salted and sold by auction.
The wool is from fine to coarse.
Wool skins: 4 – 6 kg
Minimum wool length: long – 6 cm
medium – 4 cm
short – 2 cm
Shearlings and pelts: 2 – 4 kg
(Pelts minimum wool length 1 cm)
“Heidschnucke” (sheep bred in the “Lüneburger Heide”): 3 – 4 kg
Lambskins: small lambs and slinks
Goatskins: exclusively air-dried.
Average size Average weight
27 – 37 dm2 35 – 150 kg/100 skins
“Heifer” goatskins
46 – 55 dm2 50 – 100 kg/100 skins
Young goats, female
55 – 74 dm2 100 – 140 kg/100 skins
Female goat skins
55 – 74 dm2 below 175 kg/100 skins
Male goat skins
65 – 83 dm2 175 – 200 kg/100 skins
Male goat skins
74 – 92 dm2 over 200 kg/100 skins
Male goat skins
The skins are sorted into Prima, Sekunda, Tertia
the following classes: Ia II a III a
Kid skins: exclusively air-dried.
Average size Average weight
18 – 23 dm2
“Suckling” 16 – 17.0 kg/100 skins
23 – 27 dm2 24.0 kg/100 skins
“Suckling”
27 – 32 dm2 31.5 kg/100 skins
“Springer”
32 – 37 dm2 33.0 kg/100 skins
“Springer”
37 – 42 dm2 35.0 kg/100 skins
“Springer”
For glove leather, skins of weight classes below 30 kg/100 skins are
used.
31
Rawstock
International rawstock and leather market
Since hides and skins are no longer auctioned, the standard table com-
monly used in Germany for rating defects in hides and skins has become
obsolete.
The International Council of Hides, Skins & Leather Traders’ Associations
and the International Council of Tanners have issued trade contracts.
a. International Contract No. 6 – Hides and skins
Appendix A: Raw hides and skins
(dried, dry- or wet-salted).
Appendix B: Pickled hides and skins, pickled grain hides and
splits.
Appendix C: Wet blue hides and skins, wet blue splits.
Appendix D: Chrome, vegetable or other tanned unfinished
leathers in the dry or crust state.
b. International Contract No. 7 – Finished leather
These contracts regulate between sellers and buyers all essentials, such
as recalculation of weights, quality, amount, freight, shipment, risks,
insurance, bills and payments, place of jurisdiction, etc.
The hides and skins are sorted into “prima” and “secunda” according to
any major defects determined (grub holes, butcher cuts, etc.). Goods
showing serious damage or microbial attack are rejects. Weight correc-
tions are made, if hides or skins have an excessive amount of adhering
dung.
32
Rawstock
Other European countries
Similar to classifications in Germany, but sometimes large differences in
weight classes and average weights (in Scandinavia sold by salted weight).
In Eastern Europe no classifications exist that are generally valid. Trade
contracts are concluded on individual agreements. The weight classifica-
tion of cattle hides and calf skin that are intended to be exported to
Western Europe is adapted to the standards valid in these countries.
North America
Classification according to place of slaughtering:
1. Big Packers
2. Small Packers
3. Renderers
4. Collectors
5. Country Ware
Exclusively cured by salting and sold by salted weight. Increasingly more
wet blue and crust are marketed.
Additional classification:
Native
Branded
Weight classes (cows, steers, bulls):
Light Native Cows 30 – 53 lbs
Heavy Native Cows 53/plus lbs
Branded Cows 30/plus lbs
Ex-Light Native Steers 30 – 48 lbs
Light Native Steers 48 – 58 lbs
Heavy Native Steers 58/plus lbs
Butt Branded Steers 58/plus lbs
Colorado Side Branded Steers 58/plus lbs
Native Bulls all weights
Branded Bulls all weights
Country Locker Butcher all weights
Country Mixed Lots all weights
Calf skins: 3 – 24 lbs 4 – 25 lbs 5 – 27 lbs
7 – 29 lbs 9 – 12 lbs 12 – 17 lbs
17 – 25 lbs
up to 91⁄ 2 lbs 91⁄ 2 – 15 lbs
Partly from packers
West coast up to 6 lbs 6 – 13 lbs 13 – 15 lbs
33
Rawstock
South America
(Primarily Argentine – partly quite different standards in the other coun-
tries).
Cured by salting, but increasingly green hides are sold.
A small proportion is dried (chiefly Brazil).
Increasingly more wet blue and crust are produced.
Weight classes of salted hides and skins:
Barrigas (skins of unborn calves with undeveloped hair)
Nonatos (unborn calves with developed hair) under 3.5 kg
Mamones (milk calves) 3.5 – 7.0 kg
Terneros (yearlings) 7 – 11.5 kg
Becerros (calves)
Extremes
Vaquillonas (light cows) up to 18.0 kg
Vacas (cows) 18/plus kg
Novillitos (light oxen) 17 – 23 kg
Novillos (oxen) 22/plus kg
Toros (bulls) 18/plus kg
For identification of the origin, the name of the province or countryside is
indicated.
Goat and kid skins:
Cabritos up to 400 g
Cabrillonas 400 – 600 g
Cabras over 600 g
Chivos jovenes less than 1000 g
Chivos over 1000 g
34
Rawstock
North Africa
Primarily Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia
Curing: salted, dry-salted and mainly dried.
Wet blue and crust are also marketed.
Cattle hides, calf skins (green weight):
Calf skins 1–16 kg average 4 – 15 kg
Grassers 6 – 12 kg average 9 – 10 kg
Light hides 13 – 20 kg average 18 kg
20 – 24 kg average 22 – 23 kg
25/plus kg average 28 – 30 kg
Dry-salted ca. 33 % lighter.
Goat and kid skins:
Average
Kids 2–14 kg per dozen (dry-salted) 3 kg
4–19 kg per dozen (dry-salted) 6 – 7 kg
Light goats 7 – 12 kg per dozen (air-dried)
Light goats 8 – 13 kg per dozen (dry-salted)
Medium goats 13 – 17 kg per dozen (dry-salted)
Heavy goats 17 – 22 kg per dozen (dry-salted)
Sheep and lamb skins (dried) – average values:
Milk lambs 7 – 18 kg per dozen
Small lambs 10 kg per dozen
Light lambs 12 kg per dozen
Medium lambs 14 – 16 kg per dozen
Heavy lambs 18 – 20 kg per dozen
Extra heavy lambs 22 – 24 kg per dozen
Shaved sheep skins 13 – 15 kg per dozen
Short wool sheep skins 17 – 19 kg per dozen
Medium wool sheep skins 22 – 24 kg per dozen
Half wool sheep skins 28 – 30 kg per dozen
Long wool sheep skins 32 – 36 kg per dozen
35
Rawstock
South Africa
Calf skin, cattle hide (Cape hides):
• Cured by wet-salting:
Calf skins up to 8 lbs
Light hides, kips up to 40 lbs
Hides 40/plus lbs
• Cured by air-drying
Calf skins up to 6 lbs
Hides 12/plus lbs average 16 – 20 lbs
• Cured by dry-salting:
Calf skins up to 6 lbs
Kips 6 – 12 lbs
Hides 12 – 20 lbs, 20 – 30 lbs, 30/plus lbs
Air-dried goat and kid skins – average:
= 83 – 110 dm2
Heavies 60 lbs per dozen
= 65 – 183 dm2
Mediums 48 – 50 lbs per dozen
Lights 36 – 38 lbs per dozen
Extra Lights 24 – 26 lbs per dozen
Kids 14 – 18 lbs per dozen
Also dry-salted Cape goats.
Air-dried sheep and lamb skins:
Super Combings (wool 2.5 inches +) 10 lbs per skin
9 – 9 1⁄ 2 lbs per skin
Combings (wool 2.0 – 2.5 inches)
Longs (wool 1.5 – 2.0 inches) 7–8 lbs per skin
Medium Merinos (wool 1.0 – 1.5 inches) 5 lbs per skin
Short Merinos (wool 0.5 – 1.0 inch) 4.5 lbs per skin
For wool skins: Shearings, Crossbreds, Coarsewools, Persians,
Caraculs.
Pelt – average 3 lbs
For gloves: Western Glovers (fat tail sheep skins)
Sheep and goat skins are also available in the
form of pickled pelts.
36
Rawstock
West Africa
Main supply countries: Nigeria, Senegal, Congo, Zaire, Upper Volta, Mali,
Niger.
Mainly cured by drying.
Butchers
Ordinaries
Cattle hides (dried, weight classes differ in some regions):
up to 4 lbs 18 – 12 lbs 16 – 22 lbs
4 – 8 lbs 12 – 16 lbs 22/plus lbs
Goat skins (dried, per 100 skins):
90 – 195 lbs 100 – 110 lbs
95 – 100 lbs 105 – 115 lbs
Sheep skins (dried, per 100 skins):
Light 120 – 125 lbs
Heavy 200 – 220 lbs
Medium 150 – 160 lbs
Sheep and goat skins also supplied in pretanned form, and as wet blue.
East Africa
Main supply countries: Sudan, Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania.
Cattle hides and calf skins (dried):
up to 4 lbs 4 – 8 lbs 8 – 12 lbs 12/plus lbs
Cattle hides and calf skins (salted):
Extra light 13 – 26 lbs Light 26 – 48 lbs
Medium 48 – 57 lbs Heavy 57/plus lbs
Goat skins (air-dried): 114 – 116 lbs per 100 skins
Kid skins (air-dried): 55 – 177 lbs per 100 skins
Sheep skins (air-dried): 187 – 210 lbs per 100 skins
165 lbs per 100 skins
120 lbs per 100 skins
66 – 177 lbs per 100 skins
Lamb skins, yearlings:
37
Rawstock
Asia Minor
Main supply countries: Turkey, Syria, Iraq, Iran.
Mainly sheep and goat skins.
Goat skins (dried): Kid skins (dried):
160 – 180 kg per 100 skins 25 – 140 kg per 100 skins
100 – 120 kg per 100 skins 40 – 160 kg per 100 skins
120 – 160 kg per 100 skins
Sheep skins (dried): Lamb skins (dried):
140 – 160 kg per 100 skins 170 kg per 100 skins
180 – 190 kg per 100 skins 100 kg per 100 skins
190 – 220 kg per 100 skins 120 kg per 100 skins
and sometimes more.
Large quantities in form of pretanned skins and pickled pelts.
Pickled pelts: sold in square foot per dozen.
Also wet blue and crust.
China
All hides and skins are cured by drying.
Cow hides (Hankow): Buffalo hides (Hankow):
up to 6 lbs 10 – 20 lbs
16 – 10 lbs 20 – 30 lbs
10 – 14 lbs 30 – 40 lbs
14 – 20 lbs 40/plus lbs
20 – 30 lbs
30/plus lbs
Cow hides (Canton): Buffalo hides (Canton):
18 – 10 lbs 10 – 15 lbs
10 – 15 lbs 15 – 20 lbs
15 – 20 lbs 20 – 30 lbs
20 – 25 lbs 30 – 40 lbs
25 – 30 lbs 40/plus lbs
30/plus lbs
Goat skins (dried): sold according to quality, colour and length of hair per
skin = 3⁄ 4 – 13⁄ 4 lbs and 13⁄ 4 plus lbs (also wet blue and crust).
38
Rawstock
Japan
Average size Average weight
35 – 40 kg/hide
Japanese hides 550 – 600 dm2
India, Pakistan
In the recent decades, both countries have erected modern leather facto-
ries in which leathers up to the finished stage are produced increasingly
for export. As a result, export of rawstock, wet blue, crust and pretanned
leather has decreased or partially stopped.
Cattle hides (dry-salted):
Light kips 10 – 18 lbs green weight
Medium kips 18 – 28 lbs green weight
Heavy kips 28/plus lbs green weight
Light buffalos 25 – 40 lbs green weight
Medium buffalos 40 – 60 lbs green weight
Heavy buffalos 60/plus lbs green weight
Cow calves 4 – 10 lbs green weight
Buffalo calves 10 – 20 lbs green weight
Vegetable tanned hides and skins:
Marketed in the classes Super Prime, Prime, Common
in the selections Run, IV, V, Inferio V.
33⁄ 4 – 31⁄ 2 lbs 4 – 41⁄ 2 lbs 53⁄ 4 – 51⁄ 2 lbs
Cow hides (per hide):
63⁄ 4 – 61⁄ 2 lbs 8 – 81⁄ 2 lbs 103⁄ 4 – 12 lbs
3⁄ 4 – 1 1 – 11⁄ 4 lbs 11⁄ 4 – 11⁄ 2 lbs
Cow calves (per skin): lbs
1 1⁄ 2 – 2 2 – 21⁄ 2 lbs
lbs
33⁄ 4 – 31⁄ 2 lbs 4 – 41⁄ 2 lbs 41⁄ 2– 5
Buffalo hides (per hide): lbs
53⁄ 4 – 51⁄ 2 lbs 11 – 12 lbs 133⁄ 4 – 14 lbs
6 3⁄ 4 – 7 8 3⁄ 4 – 9
Buffalo butts (per butt): lbs 7– 8 lbs lbs
1 1⁄ 2 – 2 2 – 21⁄ 2 lbs
Buffalo calves (per skin): lbs
Wet blue and crust are also available (sold by square foot).
39
Rawstock
Goat skins (dried, dry-salted):
Well-known types: Bangalore, Amritsar, Patna, Calcutta, Madras,
Mozufferpore, Bombay, Dacca.
Sorted for size (dried): 27 – 30, 30 – 36, 36 – 40 inches
Sorted for weight (dried,
per 500 skins): 350 – 375 lbs, 400 – 450 lbs
Dry-salted (per 100 skins): 140 – 200 lbs, 200 – 240 lbs
Goat skins (vegetable tanned):
Marketed in the classes Extra Superfine, Superfine, Prime, Standard
in the selections Run, V, Inferio V.
Weight classes (lbs per dozen):
51⁄ 2 – 6 lbs 28 – 29 lbs 11 – 12 lbs
1⁄ 2 – 16 lbs 22 – 24 lbs
15
Goat skins are also marketed in the form of wet blue and crust
(per square foot).
A special type of chrome crust leather is offered under the designation
“Chromosa”.
Sheep skins – rawstock:
A distinction is made between hair sheep (also known as bastards) and
wool sheep skins.
Dried rawstock: 160 – 200 lbs per 100 skins
Pelts: 130 – 160 lbs per 100 skins
Hair sheep: 200 – 210 lbs per 100 skins
Sheep skins (vegetable tanned):
A distinction is also made here between hair sheep (also known as
bastards) and wool sheep skins.
Marketed in the classes
Hair sheep Extra Superfine, Superfine, Prime
Wool sheep Semiprime, Middle Class
Selections Run, V, Inferio V.
Weight classes in lbs per dozen:
51⁄ 2 – 6 lbs 16 – 1 7 lbs 7 – 8 lbs
1⁄ 2 – 10 lbs 11 – 12 lbs
8
Wet blue and crust are also available (sold by square foot).
A special type of chrome crust leather is available under the designation
“Chromosa”.
40
Rawstock
Thailand
Main supply countries of raw salted hide: Australia, USA, New Zealand,
Netherlands, China, Vietnam, Japan
Cow hide (imported) 36 – 38 kg/hide
Cow hide (domestic) 20 – 22 kg/hide
Buffalo hide (imported) 30 – 33 kg/hide
Buffalo hide (domestic) 27 – 29 kg/hide
Bull 45 – 48 kg/hide
Indonesia (Java, Sumatra, Bali, Kalimantan, Sulawesi)
Cattle hides (dried Java hides):
Marketed in the classes up to 3 kg, 3 – 5 kg, 5 – 7 kg, 7/plus kg
in the selections Prima, Intermedia, Sekunda, Tertia.
The heaviest hides 9 kg = 22 kg green weight.
1 kg dry weight of the class 3 – 5 kg has about 6 square feet of area.
Cattle hide (salted):
Marketed in the classes 20 – 24 kg, 25 – 30 kg
1 kg wet salted has about 1.6 – 1.7 square feet of area
Buffalo hides (dried):
Marketed in the classes up to 6 kg, 6 – 8 kg, 8 – 10 kg
10 – 13 kg, 13 – 15 kg, 15/plus kg.
Goat skins (dried and toggled): Sold by length and width, measured from
the root of the tail to the end of the neck
(shoulder).
Selections: 60 – 69 cm ca. 15 – 18 kg per 100 skins
70 – 79 cm ca. 24 – 28 kg per 100 skins
80 – 89 cm ca. 35 – 38 kg per 100 skins
90 – 99 cm ca. 48 – 55 kg per 100 skins
100/plus cm ca. 62 – 65 kg per 100 skins
1 goat skin of about 750 g dry weight has about 8 square feet of area.
1 goat skin of about 350 g dry weight has about 4 square feet of area.
41
Rawstock
Goat skins (wet salted):
Selections: less then 70 cm ca. 0.6 – 0.8 kg per skin
70 – 79 cm ca. 0.8 – 1.0 kg per skin
80 – 89 cm ca. 1.2 – 1.4 kg per skin
90 cm up ca. 1.4 – 1.6 kg per skin
1 kg wet salted goat skins has about 5.0 – 5.5 square feet of area.
Sheep skins (dried and toggled):
Sold by length and width, measured from the root of the tail to the end of
the neck (shoulder).
Selections: 70 – 79 cm ca. 37 – 38 kg per 100 skins
80 – 89 cm ca. 42 – 43 kg per 100 skins
90 – 99 cm ca. 55 – 60 kg per 100 skins
100/plus cm ca. 85 – 95 kg per 100 skins
Sheep skin (wet salted):
Selections: 70 – 79 cm ca. 1.2 – 1.4 kg per skin
80 – 89 cm ca. 1.4 – 1.6 kg per skin
90 – 99 cm ca. 1.6 – 1.8 kg per skin
100 cm up ca. 1.8 – 2.0 kg per skin
1 kg wet salted sheep skins has about 5.5 – 6.0 square feet of area
Australia
Cattle hides, calf skins and yearling skins sold in lbs.
Curing: mostly salted (but also dry-salted).
Meatworks = Frigorifico type
Sheep skins (sold in lbs):
Selections: Merino Sheep skins, Comebacks, Fine Crossbreeds,
Full and Medium Crossbreeds.
Sorted in various wool lengths.
Partly also supplied in the form of pickled pelts and wet blue.
42
Rawstock
New Zealand
Main supply country for pickled sheep and lamb skins.
In the recent years, also wet blue and crust as well as local production of
finished leathers.
Pickled Sheep skins:
Mainly produced from fresh skins.
They are not sold by weight or area but by grade:
The following terms are used to describe all production grades:
– Run Heavy
– Third Heavy
– Run Light
– Merino
– Fourth sheep
Definition of grade:
The definitions Heavy or Light shall be used to indicate the weight and
substance of the skins.
The definition Heavy should apply to a pelt of greater than 2.0 mm
thickness with no single pelt of less than 1.7 mm at the mid side position.
– Run Heavy sheep: A minimum of 100 square feet per dozen.
– Run Light sheep: A minimum of 96 square feet per dozen.
– Third: No less than two thirds of an intact sheep pelt.
– Third Heavy: Defective pelts from Run heavy.
– Merino: All inquality. This grade will include full pelts
containing Merino and lap rib.
– Fourth: Defective pelts from third.
Pickled lamb pelts
Mainly produced from fresh skins.
Sold also by grade.
Definition of grades:
– First: minimum of 5 square feet per pelt. Free of fault
in main panel.
– Pinhole: minimum of 5 square feet per pelt. Apart for the
defect of pinhole this definition is identical to
first.
– Second: minimum of 5 square feet per pelt. Defective
pelts from first and pinhole. No major fault and
not more than 5 minor faults.
– Third: defective from second grade. This grade in-
cludes medium or heavy cokle pelts.
43
Rawstock
– Reject: defective pelts from third. It includes pieces and
pelts badly affected by facial eczema.
– Seedy: minimum of 5 square feet per pelt. First, second
and pinhole pelts, which contain seed, hole
and/or seed scar.
– Ribby: minimum of 5 square feet per pelt. Pelts with
medium/heavy rib from neck to butt.
– Merino: all in size. Excessively heavy and lap rib, all
grades including seedy pelts.
B. Pig skins
Main supply countries: Eastern Europe, China, Japan, USA, Western
Europe (less than 1 %).
Curing: Mainly salted butts, seldom backs (butt with neck) and whole
skins (with side parts). Also dried, limed pelts (China).
Average weight of salted butts: 2 – 4 kg (divided into weight classes).
Japanese pigskin has an average size of 130 – 140 dm2 and an average
weight of 500 – 600 kg/100 skins.
Peculiarities of pig skin: Hair roots penetrate through the entire cross-
section of the skin.
Skins of wild peccary boars of South America: used for the production of
glove and garment leather.
C. Fish skins
Types of skins used for leather production: skins of sharks, cods and
eels.
Curing: mainly salted. Sold by weight.
D. Reptiles
Crocodile, lizard and snake skins.
Origin: wild-living in the equatorial zones of the earth. Increasingly prod-
uced at breeding farms.
Curing: salted, dried. Marketed in some countries as pretanned skins.
44
Rawstock
Classification: according to width (or per skin), size of scales, pattern and
defects are considered.
Marketing in conformance with Washington Agreement on Preservation
of Species.
E. Other types of hides and skins
Deer, doe, chamois, antelope, dog, kangaroo, rabbit and seal skins;
elk and camel hides;
ostrich skins.
Sold by weight or per skin or hide.
Total quantities of raw hides and skins processed – world leather
production
In principle, all hides and skins of animals (mainly mammals) are suitable
for leather making, if they have a sufficiently strength in fibre texture and
are large enough to ensure economic production.
Leather is mainly produced from the hides and skins of mammals which
are bred for the production of meat and milk. The hides are therefore
mainly a side product of cattle breeding and the leather producing indu-
stry is a sort of disposal for valuable waste products.
Cattle hide (cattle hides, calf skins): 65 – 70 %
Sheep and lamb skins: 10 – 12 %
Goat and kid skins: 8 – 10 %
Pig skins: 3 – 5%
Other types of skins: 1 – 2%
Reptile and fish skins: below 1 %
45
Rawstock
Cattle, sheep, goat, pig and horse inventories;
production of raw hides and skins
1. World inventory (according to FAO in March 2001)
Cattle (including calves ~ 1519 million
and water buffaloes)
Asia ~ 634 million
South America ~ 310 million
Africa ~ 232 million
North and Central America ~ 161 million
Europe ~ 144 million
Oceania ~ 38 million
Sheep ~ 1048 million
Asia ~ 408 million
Africa ~ 243 million
Oceania ~ 164 million
Europe ~ 142 million
South America ~ 75 million
North and Central America ~ 15 million
Goats ~ 702 million
Asia ~ 467 million
Africa ~ 181 million
South America ~ 22 million
Europe ~ 18 million
North and Central America ~ 14 million
Oceania ~ 1 million
Pigs ~ 928 million
Horses ~ 58 million
46
Rawstock
2. Global supply of hides and skins in 1995 (Numbers in millions ft2,
according to LMC International LTD. 1997)*
Cattle Sheep Goat
World 8746 2910 1383
North America 1892 24 –
South America 2003 73 80
Europe 2327 768 109
Asia 1712 1321 883
Oceania 372 390 13
Africa 409 334 298
World’s largest cattle hide suppliers (according to FAO in March 2001)
Hides take off
World 290.242.924
China 37.387.400
USA 35.604.000
Brazil 31.600.000
India 23.300.000
Argentina 13.500.000
Russian federation 12.200.000
Australia 8.869.600
Mexico 6.580.000
Ukraine 5.580.000
France 5.430.000
Italy 4.500.000
Germany 4.284.600
Canada 3.925.000
Colombia 3.805.000
New Zealand 3.315.000
Bangladesh 2.956.500
South Africa 2.790.000
* The slaughtering rates are subject to wide fluctuations. No definite
conclusions can be drawn from them about the weight or area of the
raw hides and skins produced, because in most statistics the slaughte-
ring rates are not classified into mature and immature animals, calves,
lambs and kids.
47
Curing
Curing and disinfection of raw hides and
skins
Purpose of curing
To protect freshly flayed hides and skins from attack by micro-organisms
and render them storable for a prolonged period.
Methods of curing
1. Curing by drying
Gradual air-drying by hanging up or stretching out.
Moisture content of air-dried hides ca. 10 – 15 %.
Dried hides lose
• 55 – 60 % in weight
• up to 50 % in thickness,
• up to 12 % in area (by hanging up).
2. Salting (most frequently used at present)
a. Sprinkling with solid salt:
Hides ca. 30 – 40 % of salt calculated on
Calf skins ca. 40 – 50 % of salt green weight
Salt uptake: 15 – 25 %
Loss of weight
– calf skins: 18 – 12 %
– cattle, cow hides: 11 – 14 %
– bull hides: 12 – 18 %
Common additives for denaturing:
Soda ash: minimum 3% most commonly
Soda cryst.: minimum 5 – 16 % used
Sodium sulfate: ca. 5 – 10 %
b. Brining:
Suspension in brine and subsequent sprinkling with dry salt.
c. Dry-salting:
Combination of salting and drying or predrying first and then salting
and final drying.
48
Curing
3. Curing by pickling:
Mainly for dewoolled sheep skins and skivers but also for unhaired
cattle hides and goat skins. Treatment with salt and acid.
Amounts required: 12.5 – 15 % common salt calculated on
1.5 – 2 % sulfuric acid pelt weight
4. Short-time curing without using salt:
a. By overspraying the hides with or dipping them immediately after
flaying in Protectol KLC 50, if necessary in conjunction with nonionic
emulsifiers (3 – 5 days).
b. By placing the flayed hides (washed or unwashed) between slices of
ice in container pallets (1 – 2 days).
c. Curing the hides by hanging them up in cold stores (about 14 days at
3 °C).
Disinfection
Bactericides and fungicides are used to inhibit bacteria and mould
growth in soaking liquors and vegetable tan liquors, and on pickled pelts
and wet leathers.
49
Water
Water
Principal substances contained in water
a. Dissolved gases
Carbon dioxide, oxygen, nitrogen.
b. Readily soluble salts
Chlorides of sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium and magne-
sium sulfate.
c. Sparingly soluble salts and oxides
Hydrogen carbonates and bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium;
calcium sulfate, silicium, aluminium and iron compounds.
d. Organic substances
e. Suspended solids
Water hardness
The amount of calcium and magnesium compounds dissolved in the
water. According to DIN 19640 the content of alkaline earth ions. The unit
by which water hardness is measured is the milligram equivalent per litre
(mval/l).
1 mval/l = 1 mmol/Z.
(Z = absolute value of the electrochemical valence of alkaline earth ions).
Total hardness (TH)
Permanent or
Temporary or
noncarbonate hardness
carbonate hardness (CH)
(NCH)
Consists of: Consists of:
calcium- and magnesium- calcium- and magnesium-
hydrogen carbonates chlorides, -sulfates,
(= bicarbonates) and -silicates, -nitrates and
-carbonates. -humates.
50
Water
Rating of water according to total hardness
0– 4 German degrees of hardness = very soft water
4– 8 German degrees of hardness = soft water
8 – 12 German degrees of hardness = medium soft water
12 – 18 German degrees of hardness = fairly hard water
18 – 30 German degrees of hardness = hard water
over 30 German degrees of hardness = very hard water
Conversion of degrees of hardness of various countries
1 German degree of hardness ( °G)
= 1 part CaO in 100 000 parts water = 10 mg/l
= 0.357 mval/l alkaline earth ions
1 French degree of hardness ( °F)
= 1 part CaCO3 in 100 000 parts water = 10 mg/l
= 0.200 mval/l alkaline earth ions
1 English degree of hardness ( °E)
= 1 part CaCO3 in 70 000 parts water = 7 mg/l
= 0.285 mval/l alkaline earth ions
10 US degrees of hardness (p.p.m.) ( °US)
= 1 French degree of hardness
1 °G = 1.79 °F = 1.25 °E = 17.9 p.p.m. ( °US)
p.p.m. = parts per million
= 1 millionth of the volume or weight
= 1 ml per 1000 litres
= 1 mg per 1000 grams (1 kg).
51
Water
Conversion table for German, English and French degrees of water
hardness
German English French German English French
°G °E °F °G °E °F
0.5 0.62 0.9 6.72 8.38 12.0
0.56 0.7 1.0 7.0 8.75 12.55
0.7 0.87 1.26 7.28 9.1 13.0
0.8 1.0 1.43 7.84 9.8 14.0
1.0 1.25 1.79 8.0 10.0 14.3
1.12 1.41 2.0 8.4 10.5 15.0
1.5 1.88 2.69 8.5 10.63 15.18
1.68 2.1 3.0 8.8 11.0 15.75
2.0 2.5 3.58 8.96 11.2 16.0
2.24 2.8 4.0 9.0 11.25 16.08
2.4 3.0 4.3 9.5 11.88 17.0
2.5 3.13 4.48 10.0 12.5 17.9
2.8 3.5 5.0 10.08 12.6 18.0
3.0 3.7 5.37 10.4 13.0 18.6
3.2 4.0 5.73 10.5 13.13 18.78
3.36 4.2 6.0 10.64 13.3 19.0
3.5 4.38 6.27 11.0 13.75 19.68
3.92 4.9 7.0 11.2 14.0 20.0
4.0 5.0 7.17 11.5 14.38 20.59
4.47 5.6 8.0 11.76 14.7 21.0
4.5 5.63 8.06 12.0 15.0 21.5
4.8 6.0 8.6 13.0 16.25 23.27
5.0 6.25 8.95 14.0 17.5 25.06
5.04 6.3 9.0 15.0 18.75 26.85
5.5 6.88 9.85 16.0 20.0 28.64
5.6 7.0 10.0 17.0 21.25 30.43
6.0 7.5 10.74 18.0 22.5 32.22
6.16 7.68 11.0 19.0 23.75 34.01
6.5 8.13 11.64 20.0 25.0 35.8
52
Water
Water softening
1. By heating Hardness due to carbonates is reduced to
about 2 German degrees of hardness.
2. By precipitation and With lime or caustic soda: hardness due to
separation carbonate is reduced to about 2 German
degrees of hardness.
With soda: total hardness is reduced to
1 – 2 German degrees of hardness.
3. By ion exchange With permutites, phenolic resin bases: com-
resins plete desalting is achieved in most cases.
4. By complexing With polyphosphates or organic polyacids, e. g.
agents Trilon types: total hardness is removed.
Amounts of various softening agents required
For removing 1 German degree of hardness, the following approximate
amounts are required per litre:
10 mg calcium oxide for removing temporary hardness
due to Ca(HCO3)2
11 – 13 mg hydrated lime
19 mg soda ash if calcium sulfate is present
10 mg calcium oxide + if magnesium sulfate is present
19 mg soda ash
121 mg Trilon A Liquid
170 mg Trilon B Liquid
80 mg Trilon B Powder complete softening is possible
66 mg Trilon BD
330 mg Trilon BVT
53
Water
Trilon types for complexing
Used for:
Trilon A Liquid
Trilon AS softening,
Trilon B Liquid masking,
Trilon B Powder improving stability,
Trilon BD dissolving precipitates of hardness forming chemicals
Trilon BS
Trilon L Liquid
Trilon BVT Specific iron(III)-binding capacity
Trilon FE
pH ranges for complexing with the effective substance of Trilon B
and Trilon BS
1 g sodium ethylenediamine tetra-acetate or
0.77 g ethylenediamine tetra-acetic acid can bind
independent of temperature:
mg Name Metal ion Chem. pH range Colour of the
valence symbol complexes
64 Magnesium II Mg++ 8 – 12.5 colourless
8 – 13.5 colourless
105 Calcium II Ca++
8 – 13.5 colourless
230 Strontium II Sr++
10 – 13 colourless
361 Barium II Ba++
1.5 – 11.5 blue
167 Copper II Cu++
5 – 13**
4 – 13 colourless
172 Zinc II Zn++
3.5 – 13 colourless
296 Cadmium II Cd++
5 – 11 colourless
144 Manganese II Mn++
5 – 13*
1 – 12.5* colourless
147 Iron II Fe++
4 – 12 red**
155 Cobalt II Co++
4 – 13.5* violet***
1.5 – 13 blue
154 Nickel II Ni++
2 – 13.5 colourless
545 Lead II Pb++
2.5 – 13.5 colourless
71 Aluminium III Al+++
1.5 – 5 violet
138 Chromium III Cr+++
1 – 5.5 yellow
147 Iron III Fe+++
550 Bismuth III Bi+++ 1 – 9 colourless
*** in the presence of a reducing agent
*** at room temperature
*** when heated (retains the colour after cooling)
54
Water
Water consumption in leather production
The amounts required vary considerably, depending on the type of
leather to be produced: for 100 kg salted weight between 1.5 and
12.0 m3 water.
a. Vegetable tannage: 3 – 6 m3 water
b. Chrome tannage: 7 – 12 m3 water
Modern processes: Recycling, partial recycling of water, disconti-
nuous rinsing operations ca. 1.5 – 4 m3 water.
Water suitable for leather production
Soaking: Moderate hardness is harmless; high content of
suspended matter or of putrefactive bacteria is
undesirable.
Liming: Hard water is harmless for white lime and
sulfide lime liquors, but should not be used for
enzyme lime liquors.
Washing after liming, High content of carbonate is likely to cause lime
deliming and bating: blasts and the enzymatic effect is impaired in
bating.
Pickling, chrome Hard water is harmless.
tannage:
Vegetable tannage: Hard water and iron content is harmful; calcium
and magnesium salts cause formation of inso-
luble tannin compounds; iron content gives rise
to grey or blue discolorations.
Dyeing, fatliquoring: Soft, iron-free water should be used.
55
Vessels for the beamhouse
Vessels for the beamhouse
Filling or
unloading door
pegs
or
boards
moving direction
of hide material 2. paddle
1. drum
Conventional vessels for the beamhouse
feed line for chemicals
filling door
1st
chamber
2nd
chamber
3rd
chamber
drain
3. mixer 4. Y-drum (washing machine type)
Novel vessels for the beamhouse
56
Production of pelts
Rawstock
cattle hides, sheep or goat skins
Flaying of raw hides or skins
Curing
Soaking
Prefleshing, if necessary
waste: fleshings, residual fat
Depilation and opening up of the skin
by
painting, liming or sweating
Unhairing, dewoolling
Waste: wool, hair
Fleshing
Waste: offal for glue
Splitting
Waste: split offal
Deliming and bating
Pelt ready for tanning
57
Soaking
Soaking
Purpose
Restoring the natural swollen condition of the skin and removal of dirt,
soluble proteins and curing agents.
Procedure
a. Soaking pits (mainly used for pre-soaking dried skins)
b. Paddle (careful soaking of delicate skins in long floats)
c. Drum (most commonly used method; mainly for heavy hides).
Y-drums and mixers have lately also come into use.
Methods of accelerating soaking
a. Mechanical treatment
Dry-drumming, breaking.
b. Temperature increase
Temperature of soaking bath may be increased up to 28 °C. Higher
temperatures cause undesirable degradation of protein substance.
c. Sharpening with alkalis
• Mainly used for dried skins.
• Commonly used chemicals: sodium sulfide, sodium hydroxide,
sodium tetrasulfide, soda ash, Mollescal BW/soda ash.
• Amounts required: 0.3 – 2.0 g per litre soaking liquor.
• The pH of the float should not exceed 10.5 to 11.0, as otherwise
undesirable swelling of the skin is likely to occur.
• Do not use alkalis for:
coated raw skins (insoluble magnesium hydroxide),
dried sheep skins (wool is attacked),
fur skins (risk of hair loosening).
58
Soaking
d. Sharpening with acidic chemicals
• Mainly used for dried skins.
• Commonly used chemicals: Decaltal types, formic acid, bisulfite
solution, sodium bisulfite.
• Amounts required: 0.5 – 10 g per litre soaking liquor.
• pH of float not below 4.5, as otherwise undesirable swelling of the
skin will occur.
e. Common salt addition
• For dried and fresh skins.
• Amounts required: not more than 5 g/l, as otherwise swelling is
inhibited.
f. Addition of soaking auxiliaries and wetting agents
• Most common and safest method for all types of raw skins for
accelerating soaking.
• Amounts required: 0.2 – 2.0 g per litre soaking liquor.
g. Additions of enzymatic products like Basozym S 20
Fast soaking in 4 hours is possible, pH has to be adjusted with soda
at 10.0 – 10.2 at the beginning to reach end pH of about 9.5.
BASF soaking auxiliaries
Basozym S 20 Enzymatic soaking auxiliary for green and salted raw
stock. Activity ca. 2000 LVU/g, self-regulating pH.
Mollescal HW Soaking auxiliary. Can be applied in hair-saving and
hair-pulping processes. Prevents the hair roots from
being immunized and enables hairs to be removed
more easily.
Mollescal BW Soaking auxiliary. Accelerates the soaking process.
Can be used for salted and dried hides.
Offers adequate protection against bacterial attack.
Mollescal C Conc. Soaking auxiliary with a biocidal action. Especially
appropriate for dried hides.
Wetting agent. Reduces the surface tension of water,
Eusapon S
protects against bacterial attack and degreases
hides.
Low-foaming surfactant used to speed up the
Eusapon W
soaking of salted and dried skins. Can also be
used in paddles.
59
Depilation, opening up the skin
Depilation and opening up the skin
Purpose
Removal of hair or wool and epidermis. Other effects obtained: loosening
up of the collagen fibre texture and partial saponification of the natural
grease (= opening up of the skin and liberation of tanning-active groups.)
The most commonly used depilation and liming methods
1. Lime painting methods
a. Painting on the flesh side (by hand or machine). Diffuse from the
flesh side to the hair roots and loosen the hair or wool without
seriously attacking it. Used for skins with valuable hair or wool.
Reliming is generally necessary to open up the skin.
Depilitants: sodium sulfide, sodium hydrosulfide, sodium tetrasulfide,
Mollescal SF.
Concentration: ca. 8 – 15 °Bé.
Consistency-regulating materials: hydrated lime, kaolin, chalk, starch,
dextrin, Corial Binder AS.
Total density: ca. 22 – 28 °Bé
Amounts required: 130 – 150 litres lime paint per 1000 kg hides or
skins.
b. Painting on the grain side
For special types of rawstock to produce a particularly smooth and
fine grain. (The hair is completely destroyed).
c. Drum painting
The lime paint is allowed to act first in a very short float and subse-
quently in an extended float (transition to drum liming).
2. Liming methods
a. Pure sulfide lime liquor
Hair is destroyed (poor opening up of the skin). For leathers with very
flat, closed grain (glazed kid).
Liming chemicals: sodium sulfide, sodium hydrosulfide.
Concentration: ca. 2 – 6 °Bé.
60
Depilation, opening up the skin
b. Pure white lime
Hair loosening (strong opening up of the skin). Mainly used for reliming
and seldom for long liming of soft leathers (gloving).
Liming chemicals: hydrated lime powder (calcium hydroxide). Seldom
slaked lime (lime paste).
Concentration: 4 – 6 g hydrated lime powder per litre of lime liquor.
c. Combined sulfide and hydrated lime liquor
Most commonly used liming process.
Guiding formulation for lime liquors:
120 – 400 % water
2.0 – 4.0 % sodium sulfide conc., if required in combination with
sodium hydrosulfide
1.0 – 5.0 % hydrated lime powder
d. Oxidative liming
Hair loosening is effected by the action of chlorine dioxide.
Poor opening up of the skin. (Seldom used method.)
Liming chemicals: sodium chlorite in conjunction with acid.
3. BASF low pollution liming systems
a. Mollescal SF or Mollescal MF liming system
Organic liming systems. Compared to inorganic sulfide systems,
the Mollescal liming systems yield increased leather area and
improved strength and grain properties (smoothness, tightness of
grain, full flanks). Any residual Mollescal SF or Mollescal MF is oxid-
ised by atmospheric oxygen and, therefore, no harmful substances
are transferred into the effluent.
Liming chemicals: Mollescal SF or Mollescal MF in conjunction with
hydrated lime and, if necessary, pre-treatment with Mollescal HW or
BW.
Amounts to use: 3 – 6 % Mollescal SF/Mollescal MF in short floats
(amounts depending on hair length). In long floats (paddle), addition of
0.5 – 0.7 % sodium sulfide or appropriate amounts of hydrosulfide is
necessary.
61
Depilation, opening up the skin
b. BASF hair-saving liming system
Controlled immunisation of the hair by alkali (hydrated lime, sodium
sulfide/hydrosulfide), if pre-treatment is carried out in a slightly alkaline
soak with Mollescal LS. Subsequently, the loosened or slightly
attacked hair is filtered off.
Advantages regarding effluent: considerable reduction of COD value,
sulfide content, and nitrogen load as well as amounts of sludge and
effluent volume.
Quality improvement of pelt and leather: better loosening of scud,
lower natural grease content, more uniform uptake and distribution of
chrome as well as improved level-dyeing properties.
4. Enzymatic processes
a. Cold and warm sweating
Putrefaction process brought about deliberately. Hair-loosening is
effected by formation of enzymes and ammonia.
Now seldom used method.
b. Enzymatic liming
Hair-loosening is effected by addition of specific enzymes like
Basozym L 10, which attacks the prekeratin of the roots. By this, it
effects a better scud loosening and attack of the epidermis. Alkaline
preplumping or reliming is necessary.
62
Depilation, opening up the skin
Chemicals for depilation and liming
1. Calcium hydroxide
Starting product is quick lime (CaO), which is converted into slaked lime
(Ca(OH)2) with water.
Nowadays, mainly slaked lime is used in the form of hydrated lime pow-
der (no expenses for slaking; uniform and more accurate proportioning).
1 part quick lime is equivalent to about 3 parts slaked lime.
1 part quick lime is equivalent to 1.1 – 1.3 parts hydrated lime powder.
Density and lime content of milk of lime at 15 °C
°Bé g CaO °Bé g CaO
per litre per litre
1 7.5 16 159
2 16.5 17 170
3 26.0 18 181
4 36 19 193
5 46 20 206
6 56 21 218
7 65 22 229
8 75 23 242
9 84 24 255
10 94 25 268
11 104 26 281
12 115 27 295
13 126 28 309
14 137 29 324
15 148 30 339
63
Depilation, opening up the skin
Solubility of lime at various temperatures
°C g CaO g Ca(OH)2
per litre per litre
0 1.30 1.72
10 1.25 1.66
15 1.22 1.62
20 1.18 1.56
25 1.13 1.49
30 1.09 1.44
40 1.00 1.32
50 0.92 1.21
60 0.82 1.08
80 0.66 0.88
100 0.52 0.69
Increasing the solubility of lime by addition of sugar
(molasses, glucose)
Addition of g Ca(OH)2
% sugar per litre (20 oC)
0 1.56
0.5 1.88
1.0 2.05
1.5 2.30
2.0 2.73
2.5 3.31
64
Depilation, opening up the skin
2. Sodium sulfide
Sodium sulfide flakes 60 %, iron-free (best quality product)
• Na2S content: ca. 60 %
• Available sulfur: ca. 25 %
• Water of crystallization: ca. 40 %
• Iron content (Fe): less than 0.0008 % (practically iron-free).
High iron content – in low quality products
– may cause iron sulfide stains on raw-
stock that still contains blood.
Other available forms:
Na2S conc. block: 60 – 66 % Na2S
Na2S cryst. (Na2S · 9 H2O): 30 – 33 % Na2S
Concentrations above 3 g Na2S/litre destroy the hair.
Density in °Bé and concentration of sodium sulfide conc.
(approximate values)
°Bé g Na2S conc.
per litre
1 12
2 23
3 35
4 46
5 58
6 69
7 81
8 92
9 104
10 115
11 127
12 138
13 150
14 161
15 173
65
Depilation, opening up the skin
3. Sodium hydrosulfide
Sodium hydrosulfide flakes, technically iron-free
• NaHS content: ca. 70 %
• Na2S content: ca. < 0.5 %
• Available sulfur: ca. 40 – 41 %
• Iron content (Fe): ca. 0.001 % (techn. iron-free)
Other available forms:
Sodium hydrosulfide liquid: 30 – 35 % NaHS
Has lower alkalinity than sodium sulfide. Used in conjunction with other
liming agents to reduce swelling and produce smoother and finer grain.
1 g NaSH (70 %)/litre = pH 9.90
10 g NaSH (70 %)/litre = pH 10.35
100 g NaSH (70 %)/litre = pH 10.80
Density in °Bé and concentration of Sodium hydrosulfide flakes
(approximate values)
°Bé g NaSH flakes
per litre
1 15.5
2 32
3 48
4 65
5 82
6 99
7 127.5
8 150
9 180
10 209
11 229
12 241
13 269.5
14 301
15 333.5
66
Depilation, opening up the skin
Strength relation of sodium sulfide conc. and sodium hydrosulfide
flakes
Parts Parts
sodium sulfide conc. sodium hydrosulfide flakes
0.25 0.15
0.50 0.31
0.75 0.46
1.00 0.61
1.25 0.77
1.50 0.92
1.75 1.03
2.00 1.23
2.25 1.38
2.50 1.55
2.75 1.70
3.00 1.84
3.25 2.01
3.50 2.16
3.75 2.32
4.00 2.47
4.25 2.62
4.50 2.77
4.75 2.93
5.00 3.04
67
Depilation, opening up the skin
Liming and painting auxiliaries
1. Products for improving the liming effect
Mollescal AB Liming auxiliary. Prevents pelts from swelling during
liming and gives cleaner pelts. Promotes the pene-
tration of lime and prevents the accentuation of
growth marks.
Mollescal LS Auxiliary for use in hair-saving and hair-pulping liming
processes. Loosens hair and reduces swelling.
Enables the COD and sulfide content of the effluent
to be reduced. Performs well in combination with
Basozym L 10.
Mollescal MF Liming auxiliary free of amine and sodium sulfide
that can be used in conventional hair destroying and
hair-saving liming processes. It effects very clean,
smooth pelts. Excellent results are obtained by com-
bination with the soaking and liming enzymes of the
BASF range. Pelts limed with Mollescal MF are the
ideal basis for all types of leather.
Mollescal PA Dispersing agent for liming chemicals. Solubilizes
Liquid lime, improves penetration, opens up the skin and
prevents the accentuation of growth marks.
Eusapon S Excellent emulsifying capacity for natural skin grea-
ses. Reduces formation of fat stains, gives cleaner
pelts.
2. Products for increasing lime swelling
Common salt Effective when used in low concentration, i. e. below
5 %.
Sodium hydroxide = caustic soda, caustic soda solution.
3. Products reducing swelling
Calcium chloride
68
Depilation, opening up the skin
4. Thickening agents for lime paints
Kaolin, hydrated lime, chalk, starch, potato or rice starch, dextrin, special
polymer dispersions, such as Corial Binder AS = polyacrylate.
5. Products for increasing the solubility of hydrated lime
Mollescal PA Liquid, molasses and glucose (sugary matter).
6. Lubricants
Mollescal AGN Slip agent used to reduce the friction between pelts
and the walls of the drum. Helps to prevent chafe
marks and false backbones from forming when
limed, unhaired pelts are rinsed.
7. Products used in hair-saving liming systems to prevent immuni-
sation of hair roots and fixation of short hair.
Mollescal HW Soaking auxiliary. Can be applied in hair-saving and
hair-pulping processes. Prevents the hair roots from
being immunized and enables hairs to be removed
more easily.
Mollescal MF The liming auxiliary is added in hair-saving liming
processes before the lime. It penetrates into the hair
bulb and loosens the hair, which avoids the risk of
immunisation of the roots.
Basozym L 10 Enzymatic liming auxiliary. Can be applied in hair-
saving and hair-pulping processes on all types of raw
stock. Loosens hair roots, helps to open up the skin
and makes hair and melanin easier to remove.
Activity ca. 1000 LVU/g. Very effective in combina-
tion with Mollescal LS, Mollescal MF or Mollescal AB.
69
Deliming
Deliming
Purpose
Removal of mechanically deposited and chemically bound lime and of
capillary lime by conversion into readily soluble salts.
BASF deliming agents
Decaltal A-N Nitrogen-free deliming agent that makes sulfi-
des easier to remove by catalyzing their oxida-
tion and contributes to increased safety. Pene-
trates thick pelts quickly and assists in the
bating process on account of its weak hydrotro-
pic action.
Decaltal ES-N Liquid For nitrogen-free deliming at pH > 8. Pelts are
very clean and pale in colour. Has a weak
degreasing action.
Decaltal N/ Deliming agents with a complexing action,
Decaltal N Liquid based on non-swelling acids. Used to dissolve
lime deposits and to clean pelts. Can also be
used in pickling.
Decaltal R Very high dissolving capacity for lime. Especially
recommended for deliming unsplit hides quickly
in short floats.
Bascal S Mixture of dicarboxylic acids. Promotes the
action of other deliming agents. Can also be
used without a float or in short floats.
70
Deliming
Definition of deliming value, buffering capacity, lime dissolving
value
Deliming value = amount of deliming agent in g necessary for
neutralising 1 g calcium hydroxide.
Buffering capacity = titration according to deliming value with
normal caustic soda solution from pH 8.5 to
pH 10.5.
Difference = measure of buffering capacity.
Lime dissolving value = percentage of calcium hydroxide dissolved by
the deliming agent according to the deliming
value.
Deliming Buffering Lime dissolving
Product value capacity value
ca. ca. ca.
Decaltal A-N 3.6 26.5 54.5
Decaltal ES-N Liquid 1.6 – –
Decaltal N 1.7 15.5 28.0
Decaltal N Liquid 4.5 14.6 30.0
Decaltal R 1.7 18.3 62.5
Bascal S 1.8 0.2 100.0
71
Deliming
Strength comparison of BASF deliming agents
1 part product Decal- Decal- Decal- Decal- Decal- Bas-
tal tal tal tal tal cal
corresponds to A-N ES-N N N R S
Liquid Liquid
Decaltal A-N – 1.0 0.6 1.5 0.6 1.0
Decaltal ES-N Liquid 1.0 – 0.6 1.6 0.6 1.0
Decaltal N 1.6 1.6 – 2.6 1.0 1.0
Decaltal N Liquid 1.5 1.5 0.4 – 0.4 0.4
Decaltal R 1.0 – 1.0 2.6 – 1.0
Bascal S 1.0 1.0 0.9 2.5 0.9 –
Amounts of deliming agent required for neutralizing 1 kg CaO
3.515 kg hydrochloric acid (37 %)
1.825 kg sulfuric acid (96 %)
1.930 kg formic acid (85 %)
4.280 kg acetic acid (50 %)
7.465 kg lactic acid (43 %)
2.210 kg boric acid (100 %)
3.710 kg sodium hydrogen sulfite (100 %)
1.910 kg ammonium chloride (100 %)
2.350 kg ammonium sulfate (100 %)
72
Deliming
Other deliming agents
Product Effect Properties and use
Hydrochloric acid strong deliming acid Forms peptising CaCl2.
Danger of acid swelling.
Only for superficial
deliming.
Sulfuric acid strong deliming acid Forms sparingly soluble
CaSO4. Risk of stain for-
mation and acid swelling.
Only for superficial deli-
ming.
Formic acid, strong deliming acids Deliming effect similar to
acetic acid that of mineral acids.
Less risk of acid swelling.
Salts formed have a slight
buffering effect.
Lactic acid strong deliming acid Milder deliming effect
due to the presence of
anhydrides and lactates.
Finer grain.
Boric acid weak deliming acid Good penetration. Fixed
lime is not completely
removed. Fine grain.
Sodium hydrogen weak deliming acid Deliming and bleaching
sulfite effect at the same time.
Conversion of Ca(OH)2 into
Ammonium chloride weak deliming acid
less plumping NH4OH and
formation of peptising
CaCl2.
Ammonium sulfate weak deliming acid Forms CaSO 4 which
remains in solution in
sufficiently large amounts
of float.
73
Bating
Bating
Purpose
Further loosening and peptising of the fibre texture of the skin and
elimination of alkali-swelling with the aid of specific enzymes.
Enzymes in bating agents
Enzymes are biological catalysts that accelerate the reactions without
themselves being modified. Enzymes, which act specifically on proteins,
are called proteases.
The following proteases are used as bating agents:
1. Pancreas proteases (trypsin)
2. Mould fungus proteases
3. Bacteria proteases
Bating agents with pancreas proteases (mainly used) develop their opti-
mum effect in slightly alkaline pH range (8.0 – 8.5).
Composition:
Enzymes, wood flour as carrier substance, ammonium salts, neutral salts
as buffering and deliming agents.
Bating agents with mould fungus proteases develop their best effect at
pH 3.5 – 5.0, and bating agents with bacteria proteases at pH 6.0 – 7.2.
The buffering substances in these bating agents are among others sulfi-
tes and bisulfites.
Commercial bating agents may contain a mixture of all three types of
proteases.
Influencing the bating effect
Temperature: The rate of enzymatic reaction increases with rising
temperature.
Bating temperature used in practice: 30 – 37 °C.
Higher temperatures cause damage to the skin material.
Neutral salt content: Higher concentrations may reduce or inactivate the
bating effect.
74
Bating
Rating of bating agents
The enzyme value is the number of enzyme units in 1 g bating agent. One
enzyme unit has the fermentative capacity to digest 1.725 mg casein.
Enzyme value = LVU
Enzyme unit = LVU x 1.725
The enzyme unit is determined according to Löhlein-Volhard by allowing
the bating agent to act upon an alkaline casein solution. Undigested
casein is precipitated with hydrochloric acid and sodium sulfate. The
alkali consumption in re-titration is a direct measure of the enzymatic
effectiveness of the bating agent.
This titration method was recently supplemented by a photometric
method with trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (Tegewa method). Almost all
liberated amino groups are also detected after hydrolysis by proteolytic
enzymes.
Pancreas-based bating agents mainly used in practice:
1. Weak bating agents = 500 – 1000 LVU
(technical leather, harness leather)
2. Medium strong bating agents = 1000 – 1500 LVU
(upper leather, lining leather, fancy leather)
3. Strong bating agents = 1500 – 2000 LVU
(glove, clothing leather)
BASF bating agents
Basozym C 10 Bating agent based on pancreatic enzymes for
use on all types of leather.
Activity ca. 1000 LVU/g.
Special enzyme preparation for opening up
Basozym CS 10
small skins and fur skins in acid media.
Activity ca. 900 LVU/g.
Basozym 1000 Universal bating agent for all types of raw stock
and all types of leather. Activity ca. 1000 LVU/g.
75
Degreasing
Degreasing
Degreasing methods
1. Wet degreasing of pelts and moist leathers
a. Squeezing out under high pressure.
b. In drums with wetting agents or emulsifiers.
c. In drums with fat solvents in combination with wetting agents or
emulsifiers.
d. Treatment with solvents in drums (economical only with
redistillation).
2. Dry degreasing of leather
a. Treatment with solvents alone in special degreasing plants with
redistillation of the solvent.
b. For cleaning leather clothing in special machines (dry cleaning) with
solvents and, if necessary, specific detergents known as solvent
soaps (surfactants).
Degreasing temperatures
1. For pelts = 35 – 38 °C
2. Moist vegetable/synthetic tanned leather = 40 – 45 °C
3. Moist chrome leather = 60 – 70 °C
76
Degreasing
The most commonly used degreasing agents*
Product Boiling Density
g/cm3
point
°C
Diethyl ether (ether) 34 – 35 0.714 – 0.716
Light fractions
Gasoline 30 – 85 0.665 – 0.670
Petroleum ether 40 – 60 0.645 – 0.655
Intermediate fractions
Extraction gasoline 80 – 125 0.710 – 0.735
Wash gasoline 100 – 140 0.735 – 0.750
Heavy fraction (white spirit) 140 – 200 0.780 – 0.790
Kerosine 150 – 270 0.730 – 0.810
Decalin 188 – 193 0.873 – 0.887
Tetralin 205 – 207 0.963 – 0.973
* Safety and environmental protection rules should be observed.
BASF degreasing agent
Eusapon S Nonionic surfactant for degreasing hides and
pelts. Can be used with or without solvents.
77
Pickling
Pickling of pelts
Purpose
The purpose of pickling is to acidify the pelts to a certain pH before
chrome tannage and thus to reduce the astringency of the chrome tan-
ning agents. Pickling is also used for preserving (cf. preservation).
Pickling methods
a. Salt-containing pickling systems
Minimum common salt concentrations 6 °Bé, normally to be on the
safe side 8 – 10 °Bé.
Amount of acid or acid mixture 1 – 3 %, depending on pH and type of
acid.
b. Low salt pickling systems
Applied only when non-swelling, aromatic acids such as Decaltal N,
Picaltal Flakes are used.
c. Short pickling methods
In salt-containing and low salt pickling systems, a float length of
50 – 150 % is used and the chrome tanning agent is added after a
pickling time of 1 – 12 hours. When Picaltal Flakes are used, however,
processing can be carried out in 20 – 50 % of float and the chrome
tanning agent can be added after only 5 – 10 minutes without risk of
precipitation or diffusion trouble.
78
Pickling
Pickling acids
Product Density pH Notes
(g/cm3) (1 : 10)
ca.
Formic acid
85 % 1.195 1.65 Strong organic acid;
100 % masking.
Bascal S – 2.3 Masking; improves chrome
exhaustion; well suited for
pickling fur skins.
Decaltal N – 3 Masking; usually applied in
combination with strong pick-
Decaltal N Liquid – 3 ling acids; improve fineness of
grain.
Acetic acid 6 °Bé 1.043 2.15 Weak organic acid.
Lactic acid 80 % 1.197 1.7 Weak organic acid.
Oxalic acid cryst. – 0.75 Strong organic acid.
Picaltal Flakes – 0.50 Mixture of aromatic sulfonic
acids; masking, filling.
Hydrochloric acid 1.188 0.20 Strong inorganic acid.
37 % No filling effect.
Sulfuric acid 1.835 0.15 Strong inorganic acid.
conc. 96 %
79
Pickling
Theoretically corresponding parts by weight of various acids and
deliming agents
1 part
product
corresponds
to ca.
Formic
Formic acid 100 %
Bascal S
Bisulfite soln. 40 °Bé
Decaltal N
Decaltal N Liquid
Acetic acid 6 °Bé
Lactic acid 80 %
Oxalic acid cryst.
Picaltal Flakes
Hydrochlorid acid 37 %
Sulfuric acid 96 %
– 1.4 6.0 4.2 5.2 3.9 2.8 1.3 3.1 2.1 1.0
acid 100 %
Bascal S 0.7 – 4.1 2.9 3.6 2.7 1.9 0.9 2.2 1.5 0.7
Bisulfite soln. 0.2 0.3 – 0.7 0.8 0.7 0.5 0.2 0.5 0.4 0.2
40 °Bé
Decaltal N 0.3 0.4 1.4 – 1.2 0.9 0.7 0.3 0.7 0.5 0.3
Decaltal N Liquid 0.2 0.3 1.1 0.8 – 0.8 0.5 0.3 0.6 0.4 0.2
Acetic acid 6 °Bé 0.3 0.4 1.5 1.1 1.3 – 0.7 0.3 0.8 0.5 0.3
Lactic acid 80 % 0.4 0.5 2.2 1.5 1.9 1.4 – 0.5 1.1 0.8 0.4
Oxalic acid cryst. 0.8 1.1 4.5 3.1 3.9 2.9 2.1 – 2.4 1.6 0.8
Picaltal Flakes 0.3 0.5 1.9 1.3 1.6 1.3 0.9 0.4 – 0.7 0.3
Hydrochloric acid 0.5 0.7 2.8 2.0 2.4 1.9 1.3 0.6 1.5 – 0.5
37 %
Sulfuric acid 96 % 1.0 1.4 5.6 4.0 4.9 3.7 2.6 1.3 3.0 2.0 –
Amount of 1 N NaOH used in titrating solutions
up to pH 7.0 in ml 4.45 6.45 26.6 18.6 23.0 17.5 12.3 5.95 14.0 9.45 4.7
80
Tanning/retanning
Tanning and retanning
Purpose of tanning
To bring about irreversible stabilization of the skin substance that is prone
to putrefaction. The object of converting pelt into leather by tanning is to
– stabilize it against enzymatic degrading and increase its resistance to
chemicals,
– raise its shrinking temperature and increase its resistance to hot
water,
– reduce or eliminate its ability to swell,
– enhance its strength properties,
– lower its density by isolating the fibres,
– reduce its deformability,
– reduce its shrinkage in volume, area and thickness,
– enhance the porosity of its fibre texture.
These effects are achieved by cross-linking the collagen chains with
various tanning agents.
81
Tanning/retanning
Cross-linking reactions between skin substance and tanning
agents (schematic)
a. Vegetable tanning materials and synthetic replacement tanning agents:
Polypeptide chain
Cross-linking is effected by secondary
OH
valences through hydrogen bridges with
HO
the phenolic OH groups of the tanning
OH
agent molecule.
HO
OH
b. Mineral tanning agents; example: chrome tanning agent
Polypeptide chain
O=C
Cross-linking is effected by principal
O
Cr valences through coordinative bonds
(complex bonds) with the COOH groups
O
of the collagen.
Cr
O
C=O
c. Aldehyde tanning agents; example: glutaraldehyde
Polypeptide chain
N
CH Cross-linking is effected by principal
valences through atomic bonds (covalences)
CH2
by reaction of the aldehyde and the NH2 groups
CH2
of the collagen.
CH2
CH
N
d. Synthetic auxiliary tanning agents
Polypeptide chain
HO3S
No cross-linkage but secondary valence
NH2
linkage by electrovalent salt bridges
(ion bonds) of the sulfonic acid groups
with the NH2 groups of the collagen.
H 2N
SO3H
82
Tanning/retanning
Shrinking temperature of hide and leather
Maximum
Material Shrinking practical use
temperature temperature
(wet or moist)
Skin
a. Mammal collagen fibre 62 – 64 °C 37 – 38 °C
b. Fish collagen fibre 40 – 45 °C 25 – 30 °C
Pelt 40 – 60 °C 37 – 38 °C
Leather
Chamois leather 65 – 70 °C 40 °C
Alum tanned leather 70 – 75 °C 45 °C
Vegetable tanned leather 70 – 85 °C 45 °C
Formaldehyde leather 80 – 85 °C 50 °C
Glutaraldehyde leather 75 – 85 °C 50 °C
Aldehyde/aluminium leather 80 – 90 °C 55 °C
Chrome leather 100 °C 60 – 80 °C
83
Tanning/retanning
Tanning methods
1. Vegetable tannage
a. Pit tannage
b. Accelerated tannage
c. Rapid tannage (BASF RAPITAN process)
2. Mineral tannage
a. Chrome tannage (wet blue tannage)
b. Aluminium tannage
c. Zirconium tannage
3. Other tannages
a. Aldehyde tannage (wet white tannage)
b. Oil tannage (chamois)
c. Immergan A tannage
4. Combination tanning methods
The above tanning methods are used in various combinations with one
another and in different intensities to produce special leather properties.
The dominating tanning method generally determines the final leather
character.
Vegetable tanning is one of the oldest tanning methods, and it is still the
first choice for the production of some special types of leather e. g. sole
leather. Yet the most important tanning method today is chrome tanning.
Approximatly 80 % of the leather produced world wide are chrome tan-
ned. Nowadays an increasing amount of leather, especially automotive
leather, is tanned with a combination of aldehyde and synthetic/
vegetable/polymer tanning agents.
Retannages have gained special importance. They enable production to
be carried out on an industrial scale and improve the use value of
modern types of leather. Syntans, resin and polymeric tanning agents are
applied in retanning processes to adjust the character of the leather and
improve its quality.
84
Tanning/retanning
The classical division of the tanning process in Tanning Neutralization
Retanning is valid only for mineral tanning processes, as the low pH
after tanning has to be raised to allow an even distribution of the retan-
ning materials (vegetable, synthetic, polymeric tanning agents). In purely
organic tannages with vegetable tanning agents, syntans, aldehydes and
polymers a strict distinction between tanning and retanning is no longer
possible.
Amounts of tanning agents required for various types of leather
(Percentages on the pelt weight)
1. Vegetable/syntan tanned leathers
Sole leather 33 – 40 % pure tan
Insole leather 25 – 30 % pure tan
Combination tanned bottom leather 30 – 33 % pure tan
Harness and technical leather 28 – 30 % pure tan
Bag and upholstery leather 20 – 25 % pure tan
Upper leather 20 – 25 % pure tan
Sheep and goat skins 15 – 20 % pure tan
(Light and lining leather)
Skivers 12 – 18 % pure tan
2. Mineral tanned leather
1 – 4 % Cr2O3
Chrome tanned leather
Aluminium tanned leather 1 – 8 % Al2O3
3. Aldehyde leather 2 – 8 % aldehyde
4. Chamois leather 25 – 40 % fish oil
85
Vegetable tanning
Vegetable tanning
Structure of vegetable tanning agents
Vegetable tanning materials
Hydrolysable tanning Condensable tanning
materials (Pyrogallol) materials (Catechol)
(Acid-forming) (Phlobaphene-forming)
Oak wood Quebracho
Chestnut wood Hemlock bark
Myrobalans Mimosa bark
Valonea Oak bark
Trillo Uranday wood
Sumac Tizera wood
Dividivi Mangrove
Galls Gambir
Acorn galls Cutch
Tara
Pine bark (mixture of pyrogallol-catechol)
86
Vegetable tanning
Vegetable tanning materials
Vegetable tannins derived from:
1. Barks, 2. Woods, 3. Fruits, 4. Leaves, Growths, 5. Roots
Abbreviations:
t = tans, nt = nontans, sm = sugary matters, is = insolubles
(amounts indicated in ca.%)
1. Barks
Oak bark t 10.0 (8 – 17) Gives firm and full leather;
(Central Europe) nt 5.5 yellow-brown colour with
sm 2.6 dark cut. Usually applied as
is 71.0 dusting material.
Pine bark t 12.0 (7 – 20) High sugar content and,
(Central Europe) nt 7.0 – 9.0 therefore, strongly acid-
sm 5.0 forming. Gives yellow-brown
is 65.0 leather with reddish cut;
becomes darker.
Hemlock bark t 10.0 (7 – 18) Gives pronouncedly reddish
(Northern USA, Canada) nt 8.0 – 10.0 leather. Only of local
sm – importance.
is 65.0 – 70.0
Chestnut bark t 12.0 (10 – 18) Similar in properties to oak
(Southern Europe) nt 7.0 bark.
sm 5.0
is 64.0
Mangrove bark t 36.0 (16 – 50) Gives reddish leather. Highly
(Tropical sea coasts) nt 12.0 (9 – 15) sludging.
sm 1.0 – 2.0 Spongy leather.
is 40.0 – 46.0 Of little importance.
Mimosa bark t 36.0 (22 – 48) Gives pale leather with
(South Africa, Australia) nt 7.5 reddish tinge. Good solubility,
sm 2.0 (1 – 4) nonsludging. Leather dar-
is 42.0 kens on exposure to light.
Bagaruwa t 30.0 – 35.0 Gives pale and medium firm
(West and Central Africa) nt 11.0 – 14.0 leather. Only of local
is 45.0 – 50.0 importance.
87
Vegetable tanning
Maletto bark t 42.0 (35 – 56) Readily soluble; gives
(Australia) nt 8.0 yellowish leather colour that
sm 2.0 grows more reddish. For all
is 36.0 types of leather.
Acacia negra t 40.0 (30 – 47) Similar in tanning effect to
(Brazil) nt – mimosa bark, but gives a
sm – somewhat darker leather
is – colour.
Birch bark t 12.0 (7 – 18) Strongly acid-forming. Gives
(North America, nt 5.0 – 9.0 medium firm yellow-red
Europe, Russia) sm 3.0 – 5.0 leather. Only of local
is 70.0 – 75.0 importance.
Willow bark t 10.0 (7 – 14) Gives mild, pale leather. Only
(Northern Europe, nt 4.0 – 7.0 of local importance. For
Russia) sm 2.0 genuine Russian leather.
is 70.0 – 75.0
Redunca bark only for Also called myrtan extract.
(Australia) extracts High sugar content and,
therefore, acid-forming.
Bablah (babool) t 30.0 – 35.0 Only of little local importance.
(India, Pakistan) nt 12.0 – 15.0 Resistant to lime water.
sm –
is 40.0 – 45.0
2. Woods
Oak wood t 6.5 (4 – 10) Strongly acid-forming. For
(Central Europe) nt 1.5 – 2.0 firm leather. Normally used in
sm 1.3 – 1.5 combination with other
is 70.0 – 80.0 tanning materials.
Chestnut wood t 9.0 (6 – 15) Gives firm leather of pale
(Southern Europe) nt 1.0 – 2.0 colour. Bloom-forming.
sm 0.6 – 1.2
is 65.0 – 70.0
Quebracho wood t 20.0 (14 – 26) Reddish leather colour,
(South America) nt 1.5 – 2.0 growing darker. Sludging,
sm 0.1 – 0.3 rapid tanning action,
is 61.0 imparts weight.
88
Vegetable tanning
Urunday wood t 14.0 (11 – 16) Cannot be distinguished
(South America) nt 1.0 – 3.0 analytically from quebracho;
sm – gives somewhat firmer
is 65.0 leather and higher yield.
Tizera wood t 20.0 – 22.0 Similar to quebracho wood.
(North Africa, Sicily) nt 2.0 – 3.0 Of little importance.
sm –
is 60.0 – 63.0
Cutch wood only for Very rapid tanning action.
(India, East Africa) extracts Gives soft leather of dark
colour. Of local importance
only.
3. Fruits/Pods
Algarobilla t 43.0 (35 – 52) Gives soft and mild leather of
(Central and nt 18.0 – 22.0 yellow-brown colour.
South America) sm 6.0 – 8.0 Bloom-forming.
is 21.0 – 25.0
Dividivi t 42.0 (25 – 50) Strongly acid-forming. Gives
(Central and nt 15.0 – 19.0 spongy, offshade leather.
South America) sm 8.0 – 10.0 For combination tannages.
is 25.0 – 28.0 Bloom-forming.
Myrobalans t 35.0 (25 – 48) Strongly sludging. Mainly for
(India, South East Asia) nt 14.0 – 17.0 combination tannages.
sm 5.0 – 8.0 Gives soft leather.
is 20.0 – 40.0
Tara (Teri) t 35.0 – 56.0 Gives soft and pale leather.
(South America, India) nt 15.0 – 22.0 At present mainly used for
sm – automotive and upholstery
is 10.0 – 33.0 leather due to high light- and
heat-resistancy.
Valonea, Trillo t 20.0 – 50.0 Gives tough, pale and firm
(South Eastern Europe, nt 8.0 – 13.0 leather with dark cut.
Asia minor) sm 3.0 – 4.0 Bloom-forming.
is 33.0 – 47.0
89
Vegetable tanning
4. Leaves, growths
Galls t 60.0 – 77.0 Of no importance for tanning;
(China, Japan, Turkey, for production of tanning
North Africa) acid.
Gambir only for Extract sparingly soluble.
(India, China, extract Gives soft, pale, extensively
South East Asia) lightfast leather.
Acorns t 30.0 Gives tough, firm leather of
(Yugoslavia, Hungary) nt 7.5 brown-grey colour.
sm 0.5 – 1.0
is 46.0 – 50.0
Sumac leaves t 28.0 (22 – 35) Gives soft and supple leather
(Mediterranean nt 14.0 – 15.0 of pale colour. High
countries) sm 4.0 – 5.0 lightfastness. For fancy
is 48.0 – 50.0 leathers.
5. Roots
Badan t 17.0 – 20.0 Of little local importance
(Russia) nt 18.0 – 21.0 (extract production).
Canaigre t 18.0 – 25.0 Of little importance (tanning
(Mexico, Algeria) sm 3.0 – 6.0 material of American Indians).
Taran, Kermek t 16.0 – 22.0 Of little local importance.
(Russia, Turkey) nt 9.0 – 11.0
sm 2.0 – 5.0
90
Vegetable tanning
Vegetable tannin extracts (liquid, solid, powder)
Abbreviations:
t = tans, nt = nontans, is = insolubles, w = water, a = ash,
tts = tans in total solubles
(Percentages indicated are approximate values)
°Bé t nt is w a pH tts
Pine bark
extract – liquid 20 30 (16 – 34) 16 1.5 53 3 – 4 4.3 65
– powder – 54 (52 – 57) 33 3.0 10 2.5 4.3 62
Mimosa (bark)
extract – liquid 25 35 (27 – 46) 11 0.5 54 3.5 5.0 76
– solid – 63 (58 – 70) 16 1.0 20 3.0 5.0 80
– powder – 75 (70 – 78) 18 1.0 7 2.5 5.0 81
Mangrove (bark)
extract – liquid 24 32 (28 – 36) 8 1.0 59 2.5 5.4 80
– solid – 58 (56 – 70) 17 1.0 25 5.0 5.4 78
– powder – 75 (70 – 78) 18 0.5 7 3.5 5.4 81
Redunca (myrtan)
extract – solid – 60 (60 – 70) 20 10 10 4.5 4.0 75
Oak wood
extract – liquid 25 27 (20 – 39) 13 0.5 60 2.5 3.5 67
– solid – 61 (57 – 68) 21 1.0 17 2.5 3.5 74
– powder – 73 (65 – 75) 21 1.0 5 2.5 3.5 78
Chestnut wood
extract – liquid 27 34 (22 – 46) 9 0.5 56 0.5 3.3 79
– solid – 66 (50 – 81) 12 0.4 22 1.5 3.3 84
– powder – 73 (65 – 83) 21 0.2 6 1.5 3.3 78
Tara
extract – liquid – 75 (67 – 83) 12-19 0.5 – 5.3 4 – 8 – 3.4 – 3.9 –
– powder – 63 (58 – 68) 22 0.5 – 0.8 3 – 9 4 – 7 3.2 – 3.6 72
Quebracho ordinary
extract – liquid 22 35 (30 – 40) 3 3.0 59 0.5 5.0 90
– solid – 65 (57 – 74) 5 8.0 22 1.0 5.0 93
Quebracho sulfited
(hot- – solid – 72 (68 – 76) 8 0.0 20 4.0 5.5 90
soluble)
91
Vegetable tanning
°Bé t nt is w a pH tts
Quebracho sulfited
(cold- – solid – 70 (65 – 73) 11 0.0 19 6.0 6.0 86
soluble) – powder – 82 (78 – 84) 8 0.1 10 4.5 5.5 91
Myrobalans
extract – liquid 22 26 (24 – 30) 9 1.0 64 1.5 3.0 74
– solid – 60 (57 – 65) 16 2.0 22 3.0 3.0 79
– powder – 70 (68 – 74) 18 2.0 8 3.0 3.0 80
Valonea (valex)
extract – liquid 25 30 (24 – 34) 8.5 0.5 61 2.0 3.8 78
– powder – 68 (58 – 64) 22 0.5 10 5.0 3.8 76
Sumac
extract – liquid 26 25 (24 – 30) 13 0.5 61 1.0 4.0 66
– powder – 62 (58 – 64) 30 1.0 7 4.5 4.0 68
Gambir blocks
extract – solid – 40 (36 – 51) 14 8.0 38 3.5 4.3 74
Gambir cubes
extract – solid – 50 (48 – 55) 17 12 21 4.5 4.7 75
Cutch
extract – solid – 50 (45 – 52) 23 11 16 – – 68
92
Vegetable tanning
BASF products supporting vegetable tanning systems
Bastamol K Fixing agent used to fix all types of anionic
tanning agents. Reduces the water absorption
of vegetable-tanned leather and the loss by
washing. Enhances the colour of the leather
and its perspiration resistance.
Basyntan I/ Tanning agents that can be used to accelerate
Basyntan IZ vegetable tannages and to enhance the colour
of the leather. They can increase the yield.
Basyntan I: Conc.: 96 %, pH ca. 3.8
Basyntan IZ:. Conc.: 92 %, pH ca. 4
Basyntan N Very appropriate for all types of soft, full leather.
Conc.: 95 %, pH ca. 4
Basyntan RS-3 Pretanning agent applied prior to vegetable
tanning. Accelerates the penetration of
vegetable tanning agents and gives pale
leathers with a fine grain. Conc.: 96 %
Basyntan TM Liquid Pretanning agent for lightening the colour of
vegetable-tanned leather. Conc.: ca. 45 %
Relugan RV Very effective in combination with vegetable
tanning agents. Speeds up vegetable tanning
processes, improves the fullness of the leather
and bleaches its colour.
Tamol M/Tamol MB Dispersing agents used to speed up the uptake
and improve the distribution of vegetable
tanning agents.
93
Mineral tanning
Mineral tanning
Structure of mineral tanning agents
Polybases Polyacids
= =
Chrome tanning agents Phosphoric acid
Aluminium tanning agents tanning agents
Zirconium tanning agents Silicic acid tanning agents
BASF mineral tanning agents
1. Chrome tanning agents
Chromitan B Ready-to-use chromium(III) salt,
ca. 25 % Cr2O3, ca. 33 % basicity.
Chromitan FM Lightly masked chrome tanning agent with a
buffering effect. Uniform composition, alkali-
free. Ca. 24 % Cr2O3, ca. 40 % basicity.
Chromitan FMS Self-basifying, lightly masked chrome tanning
agent, ca. 24 % Cr2O3, ca. 48 % basicity. Gives
even cleaner effluent, and enables greater
savings in chrome to be made. Less chrome is
liberated when leathers are retanned with syn-
tans.
Chromitan MSN Self-basifying chrome tanning agent. Uniform
composition, alkali-free. Ca. 21 % Cr 2O3,
ca. 50 % basicity.
94
Mineral tanning
2. Aluminium tanning agents
Lutan BN Aluminium tanning agent, ca. 16 % Al2O3,
ca. 50 % basicity.
Lutan FN Complexed aluminium tanning agent for white
leathers and wool skins, ca. 17 % Al2O3,
ca. 20 % basicity.
3. Zirconium tanning agent
Lutan DZ Used in retannages for chrome-tanned leathers
to reduce their stretchiness and to improve the
tightness of the grain without making the grain
coarse.
Also used to fix water repellents to waterproof
leathers.
4. Combination tanning agent aluminium/chrome
Lutan CRN Aluminium tanning agent containing chrome.
For tanning white leathers and retanning
chrome-tanned leathers. Promotes the pene-
tration of mineral tanning agents, consolidates
the fibre structure, and gives a tighter grain,
better response to dyeing and a fine, short nap.
Ca. 14 % Al2O3, ca. 3.0 % Cr2O3;
ca. 20 % basicity.
5. Combination tanning agent chrome/syntan
Basyntan E Synthetic retanning agent containing chrome.
Gives leathers with a soft handle and a smooth
grain. Levels the shade of dyed leather without
lightening it to any extent.
95
Mineral tanning
Amounts of mineral tanning agents in % for x% Cr2O3 or Al2O3
Product % Cr2O3 or Al2O3
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Chromitan B 1.9 3.8 5.7 7.7 9.6 11.5
Chromitan FM 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0
Chromitan FMS 2.1 4.2 6.3 8.4 10.4 12.5
Chromitan MSN 2.4 4.8 7.2 9.5 11.9 14.3
Chrome alum 3.3 6.6 10.0 13.2 16.4 20.0
Lutan BN 2.2 4.3 6.5 8.7 10.9 13.0
Lutan FN 2.8 5.6 8.3 11.1 13.9 16.7
Lutan CRN 2.8 5.6 8.3 11.1 13.9 16.7
(Al2O3 + Cr2O3)
96
Mineral tanning
Other mineral tanning salts
Chrome alum KCr(SO4)2 · 12 H2O; 15.2 % Cr2O3 content.
For special one-bath tannages.
[Cr(H2O)6] (CH3COO)3; 30 % Cr2O3 content.
Chromium acetate
(violet) Special aftertreatment dyeing auxiliary (glove
leather).
CrCl3 · 6 H2O; 28.4 % Cr2O3 content.
Chromium chloride
Chromium sulfate Cr2(SO4)3 · 18 H2O; 21.2 % Cr2O3 content.
Starting product for the production of chrome
tanning agents.
K2Cr2O7; 51.7 % Cr2O3 content.
Potassium dichromate
Initial product for the production of chrome
tanning agents. Toxic product (carcinogenic).
Na2Cr2O7 · 2 H2O; ca. 50 % Cr2O3 content.
Sodium dichromate
Initial product for the production of chrome
tanning agents. Toxic product (carcinogenic).
AlCl3 · 6 H2O; ca. 22 % Al2O3 content.
Aluminium chloride
Aluminium sulfate Al2(SO4)3 · 18 H2O; 15.3 % Al2O3 content.
Potash alum KAI(SO4)2 · 12 H2O; 10.8 % Al2O3 content.
Now only of little significance. Product has only
low binding stability. For special use in combi-
nation with other mineral tanning agents.
Zr(SO4)2 or the 50 % basic salt
Zirconium sulfate
Zr(OH)2SO4
For special tannages and retannages.
97
Mineral tanning
Basicity
The basicity of a mineral tanning agent is the proportion of hydroxyl
groups (OH groups) in the molecule, calculated on the total valences of
chromium, aluminium or other complexing mineral tanning salts. The
tanning power of low basicity products is weak; it is adjusted to the
optimum basicity range of 33 % to 66 % by addition of alkalis.
The basicity is specified in
% (percent) = basicity according to Schorlemmer
1/12 (twelfth) = Freiberger basicity (seldom used)
Basicity in percent Basicity in twelfths
0 = 0/12
8.33 = 1/12
16.66 = 2/12
25.00 = 3/12
33.33 = 4/12
41.66 = 5/12
50.00 = 6/12
58.33 = 7/12
66.66 = 8/12
With increasingly higher basicity, most commercial chrome tanning
agents begin to flocculate; unmasked chromium sulfates, for instance,
already at a basicity of 50 %. With aluminium tanning salts it is still more
difficult to prepare highly basic complex salts.
General formula for calculating the basicity increase
(x-a) · g Cr2O3/litre · factor = g alkali/litre
x = basicity desired
a = basicity present
Factors of common alkalis:
soda ash (100 %) = 0.02092
soda crystals = 0.05647
sodium hydrogen carbonate = 0.03316
sodium hydroxide (50 %) = 0.03158
magnesium oxide (water-free) = 0.00796
98
Mineral tanning
Basicity increase (general)
(Figures indicate amount of basifier in gram)
With Increase 1000 g 1000 g
by chromium Chromitan B
oxide (Cr2O3)
Soda ash 1/12 177 45.0
1% 20.9 5.4
Sodium bicarbonate 1/12 295 75.5
1% 33.2 8.5
Neutrigan 1/12 300 78.0
1% 36.0 9.4
Magnesium oxide 1/12 67 17.6
1% 8.0 2.1
General formula for determining the basicity reduction
x · g Cr2O3/litre · factor = g acid/litre
x = basicity reduction desired in%
Factors of most commonly used acids:
sulfuric acid (96 %) = 0.02016
formic acid (100 %) = 0.01817
formic acid (85 %) = 0.02137
hydrochloric acid (37 %) = 0.03890
oxalic acid (100 %) = 0.01777
Basicity reduction (general)
(Figures indicate amounts of acid in gram)
With Reduction 1000 g 1000 g
by chromium Chromitan B
oxide (Cr2O3)
Sulfuric acid (96 %) 1/12 167.8 43.6
1% 20.2 5.2
Hydrochloric acid (37 %) 1/12 323.8 84.2
1% 38.9 10.1
Formic acid (85 %) 1/12 177.9 46.2
1% 21.4 5.6
99
Mineral tanning
Masking of chrome tanning agents
Masking refers to the entering of acid radicals (usually organic acids) into
the mainly used chromium sulfate complexes. The properties of the
chrome liquors and that of the resultant leather can be influenced by
appropriate masking, e. g.:
With regard to the tanning agent:
Reduction of astringency
Increase of the resistance to alkalis (flocculation)
Increase of the penetration rate.
With regard to the leather:
Improvement of fullness
Increase of shrinking temperature
Improvement of grain pattern and smoothness
Modification of handle
Improvement of vertical chrome distribution
Lightening of leather colour.
Masking agents with increasing complex affinity
Chlorate nitrate chloride sulfate sulfite rhodanate
formate acetate adipinate sulfophthalate
succinate tartrate
glycolate phthalate sulfosalicylate maleinate
malonate lactate citrate resorcylate oxalate hydroxide
(Each succeeding anion displaces the preceding one from the chromium
complex).
100
Mineral tanning
The principal masking agents
Implenal AP Strongly filling, fine grain.
Implenal DC Liquid Filling, fine, tight grain. Improves chrome ex-
haustion and fixation.
Implenal DN Like Implenal DC Liquid with additional
buffering effect.
Bascal S Improves chrome exhaustion in tan bath.
Decaltal N Filling, bleaching, fine grain.
Neutrigan Filling, fine grain. Can inhibit the formation of
Cr(VI).
Sodium formate Fine grain, improves penetration of tanning
agents.
Calcium formate Less fine grain, accelerates penetration of
tanning agents.
Sodium acetate Pale leather colour, gives comparatively flat
leathers.
Sodium bisulfite Filling, less fine grain.
Sodium sulfite Filling, green leather colour.
Polymethaphosphate Filling, fine grain.
Reduced chrome liquors prepared from potassium or sodium
dichromate
Principle
Potassium and sodium dichromate are salts of hexavalent chromium and
have no tanning effect. They are reduced with reducing agents in the
presence of mineral acids to chromium(III) salts that possess tanning
properties.
101
Mineral tanning
Precautionary measures in preparing chrome liquors
All soluble chrome(IV) compounds are liver and kidney poisons and may
be carcinogenic. Very strict safety measures have to be observed in
handling dichromates, e. g. the wearing of protective clothing, work-
gloves, workshoes and respirators to protect against dust and spray
mists.
Principal reducing agents
Inorganic products: sulfur dioxide (gaseous), sodium thiosulfate, sodium
hydrogen sulfite, sodium sulfite.
Organic products: glucose, cane or grape sugar, molasses, sulfite
waste liquor, sawdust or chrome shavings.
Theoretical calculation of basicity of reduced chrome liquors
(Schorlemmer)
B = 133.3 – S
B = basicity, S = kg sulfuric acid for 100 kg potassium dichromate
Amounts of products required for preparing reduced chrome
liquors
According to practical experience, the following amounts of reducing
agents and acids are required for preparing a chrome liquor of 33.3 %
basicity (Schorlemmer):
Per 100 kg sodium or potassium dichromate
+ 30 kg glucose (technical grade)
+ 95 – 100 kg sulfuric acid conc.
or
+ 35 kg molasses
+ 90 – 100 kg sulfuric acid conc.
or
+ 110 – 130 kg sodium thiosulfate
+ 80 – 90 kg sulfuric acid conc.
or
+ 70 – 75 kg sulfur dioxide (gaseous)
102
Mineral tanning
Depending on the concentration desired, the amount of water required
varies between 250 and 500 litres.
The degree of masking of the reduced chrome liquors obtained depends
on the order in which the chemicals are added.
The procedures preferred in practice are as follows:
Weaker masking = dichromate/sulfuric acid + reducing agent
Stronger masking = dichromate/reducing agent + sulfuric acid
Special BASF tanning auxiliaries
Neutrigan MON Self regulating basifying agent. This product
prevents large variations in pH, ensures very
even chrome distribution, and gives a tight,
smooth, fine grain.
Mollescal AGN High molecular weight, water-soluble copoly-
mer. Used as a lubricant in wet processes of
leather production to reduce friction and thus
also the tendency to tangling and knotting as
well as the risk of pieces of material being torn
off and abrasion marks being formed especially
when processing in short floats.
Tamol GA Neutralizing agent for all types of chrome-tan-
ned leather. Improves the softness and fullness
of the leather and the elasticity of the grain.
Enhances the nap on suede. Gives more level
shades when dyed, speeds up vegetable
retannages.
Tamol NNOL Tanning auxiliary with a neutralizing, retanning
and levelling action. Especially appropriate for
white leathers and leathers dyed to pale shades
that are required to have high lightfastness.
103
Mineral tanning
Flow chart of chrome leather tanning
Pelt
Pickling
Tanning
Basifying
Conditioning of wet blue
Sorting
Chrome leather trimmings – waste
Samming
Shaving
Shavings – waste
Further processing in the various types of leather
104
Other tanning methods
Other tanning methods
Wet white tannage
Definition: Contrary to wet blue
Variation A: Free of heavy metals and aluminium salts.
Variation B: Free of chromium, but Al, Zr, Ti, Fe are accepted.
Wet white made by pure organic tanning has gained more and more
importance in the recent years. In this process the wet white is produced
by combinations of:
Aldehydes
Syntans and vegetable tanning agents
Polymers
Auxiliaries
The properties of the leather are adjusted mainly by the amount and type
of syntan used and by the process parameters.
A wide variety of different types of leather are thus available, e. g.:
Automotive leathers
Upholstery leather
Garment leather
Shoe upper leather
Shavings and cuttings of wet white leather are free of chrome.
Selected BASF products for wet white leather
Basyntan DLX-N Lightfast syntan with a strong tanning action
and high fastness. Especially appropriate for
tanning wet white and reptile skins, and for
retanning white leathers and other types of
leather with high lightfastness and heat
resistance.
105
Other tanning methods
Basyntan SW Liquid Basyntan SW Liquid is a very effective pretan-
ning and tanning agent for wet white, especially
for automotive leather. It also performs just as
effectively as a wet blue retanning agent for all
types of automotive and upholstery leather, and
for garment, shoe and white leathers. The
retanned leather has a fine, tight grain and can
be dyed to brilliant, level shades.
Relugan GT 50/ A 50 % and a 24 % solution of glutaraldehyde.
Relugan GT 24 Can be used for all types of leather as pre- or
retanning agent or as the sole tanning agent.
High dispersing capacity for natural fatty
substances. Give soft, perspiration-resistant
leathers.
Relugan GTW Modified glutaraldehyde. Gives leathers with
high lightfastness and a fine, flat grain. Makes
leathers easier to dye, and enables them to be
dyed to intense shades.
Relugan GTP New aldehyde pre- and retanning agent with a
more pleasant odour. Very effective for use on
wet white. Can be used to retan chrome-tanned
leathers in order to give soft leathers with a
smooth grain, a good response to dyeing and
excellent washfastness and perspiration resis-
tance.
Relugan GX Odourless aldehyde tanning agent used to
support pretannage of wet white leather and to
retan chrome-tanned leather as well as wet
white leather. Gives soft leathers that can be
dyed to very level, brilliant shades. Excellent
resistance to yellowing, which enables it to be
used for white leather and leather dyed to pas-
tel shades. Can also be used to wet back crust
without any ammonia having to be used.
Relugan RE Improves the fullness and softness of retanned
leather.
106
Other tanning methods
Relugan RF Can be used in tannages and retannages for
chrome-tanned and wet white tanned leathers
to improve fullness and lightfastness of the
leather and the tightness of the grain. Boosts
the exhaustion of chrome.
Relugan RV Relugan RV improves the fullness of chrome-
tanned and wet white tanned leathers and
the tightness of the grain, and reduces their
elasticity.
Very effective in combination with vegetable
tanning agents. Speeds up vegetable tanning
processes, improves the fullness of the leather
and bleaches its colour.
Relugan SE Excellent alternative to conventional syntans.
Mainly used to retan leathers that are required
to have high lightfastness, high heat resistance
and a fine and tight grain.
Important parameters in wet white tanning:
– Thorough deliming and bating of the pelts
– Intensive washing
– Pickling through cross section
– Type and concentration of aldehyde
– pH
– Running time
– Basificaion
– Use of syntans
For further information on wet white tanning regard the following publica-
tion: G. Wolf, M. Breth, J. Carle and G. Igl, JALCA Vol. 96, p. 111, 2001.
107
Other tanning methods
Flow chart of wet white tanning
Pelt
Deliming/Bating
Pickling/Pretanning
Samming/Shaving
Shavings – waste
Tanning with:
Vegetable, synthetic and polymer Chrome
tanning agents
Further processing in the various types of leather
Oil tannage
This is a very special tanning method imploying unsaturated oils for an
extremely soft leather called chamois leather.
BASF Oil tanning agent
Oil tanning agent for soft, white leathers such
Immergan A
as glove leathers and garment leathers, which
are expected to be tear-resistant and washable.
Can be used in combination with fish oil and
Relugan GT 50/GT 24 for tanning chamois
leather; and with Lutan BN for glacé-kid type
glove leathers.
108
Neutralization
Neutralization (deacidification) of leather
Purpose
Removal of free acids present in mineral tanned leather or formed in the
leather during storage. For this purpose, mild auxiliaries are used which
do not cause damage to the leather fibre.
This process should be more correctly called deacidification and not neu-
tralization, because the treatment of the leather is seldom extended to
the neutral point.
Procedure
Neutralization is carried out according to the type of leather to be
produced. Intensive neutralization throughout the whole cross-section is
necessary for the production of soft leathers and neutralization to only a
certain depth for firmer leathers.
Instead of using alkalis, the leathers are in some cases treated only with
lightly neutralizing syntan-like auxiliaries.
Overneutralizing should always be avoided, as otherwise a coarse loose
grain and an empty handle are obtained.
109
Neutralization
Neutralizing agents (general)
Product pH Properties
Soda 10.8 – 11.2 Risk of overneutralization,
(sodium carbonate) because of superficial action. No
thorough uniform neutralization
even after prolonged treatment.
Sodium bicarbonate 7.8 – 8.1 Good penetrative effect. Risk of
(sodium hydrogen overneutralization only when large
carbonate) amounts are used. Do not dissolve
above 35 °C, because otherwise
soda formation.
Borax 9.0 – 9.2 Risk of overneutralization similar
to use of soda. Acts somewhat
milder at the beginning but on
prolonged treatment the alkali
effect is higher than that of soda.
Ammonium 8.0 – 8.2 Particularly penetrative neutralizing
bicarbonate effect. Risk of overneutralization
cannot be completely excluded.
Sodium sulfite 7.8 – 8.0 Mild neutralizing agent with
uniform penetrative power.
Sodium thiosulfate 6.5 – 7.0 Poor neutralizing effect, therefore
used in large amounts. Bleaches
leather by deposition of sulfur.
Sodium acetate 8.0 – 8.2 Mild neutralizing agent with
bleaching effect.
Calcium formate 6.5 – 7.5 Mild neutralizing agent.
Neutralizing effect is not very
strong. Formation of calcium
sulfate may cause trouble.
Sodium formate 7.5 – 9.5 Rapidly penetrating mild neutrali-
zing agent. No overneutralization
even if large amounts are used.
110
Theoretically corresponding parts by weight of various alkalis and
neutralizing agents
1 part
product
corresponds
to ca.
Ammonia
Ammonia (25 %)
Ammonium bicarbonate
Borax (10 H2O)
Sodium acetate
Sodium bicarbonate
Sodium formate
Sodium hydroxide (solid)
Sodium sulfite
Neutralization
Sodium thiosulfate
Neutrigan
Soda ash
– 1.16 2.8 1.21 1.24 1.0 0.59 1.85 3.65 2.2 0.78
(25%)
Ammonium 0.86 – 2.41 1.04 1.06 0.86 0.51 1.59 3.14 1.87 0.67
bicarbonate
Borax 0.36 0.41 – 0.43 0.44 0.36 0.21 0.66 1.3 0.78 0.28
(10 H2O)
Sodium 0.83 0.96 2.33 – 1.02 0.83 0.49 1.54 3.03 1.8 0.65
acetate
Sodium 0.81 0.94 2.27 0.98 – 0.81 0.48 1.5 2.95 1.76 0.63
bicarbonate
Sodium 1.0 1.16 2.8 1.21 1.24 – 0.59 1.85 3.65 2.2 0.78
formate
Sodium 1.7 1.98 4.77 2.05 2.1 1.7 – 3.15 6.2 3.7 1.33
hydoxide
(solid)
Sodium 0.54 0.63 1.51 0.65 0.67 0.54 0.32 – 1.97 1.17 0.42
sulfite
Sodium 0.27 0.32 0.77 0.34 0.34 0.27 0.16 0.51 – 0.6 0.21
thiosulfate
Neutrigan 0.46 0.53 1.28 0.57 0.57 0.46 0.27 0.85 1.68 – 0.36
Soda ash 1.28 1.49 3.6 1.58 1.58 1.28 0.75 2.38 4.68 2.79 –
111
Neutralization
BASF neutralizing agents
Neutrigan Complex-forming neutralizing agent and mild
basifying agent which gives full leathers with a
tight grain that respond well to dyeing.
Can prevent formation of Cr(VI).
Basyntan FC Auxiliary tanning agent with a bleaching action
and an excellent dispersing effect. Can be used
to neutralize and retan chrome-tanned leathers
with a sensitive grain and in vegetable tanning.
Tamol GA Neutralizing agent for all types of chrome-tan-
ned leather. Improves the softness and fullness
of the leather and the elasticity of the grain.
Enhances the nap on suede. Gives more level
shades when dyed, speeds up vegetable retan-
nages.
Tamol M/Tamol MB Dispersing agents used to speed up the uptake
and improve the distribution of vegetable
tanning agents. These products promote the
penetration of dyes through chrome-tanned
leather and give more level shades.
Tamol NA The excellent buffering capacity of Tamol NA
promotes the neutralization of chrome-tanned
leather. It can be employed in retannages to
disperse retanning agents and dyes, and the
leather can be dyed to brilliant, level shades.
Reduces the formation of chromium(VI).
Tamol NNI Dispersing and levelling agent. Promotes the
penetration of dyes through chrome-tanned
leather and wet white leather and gives more
level shades.
Tamol NNOL Tanning auxiliary with a neutralizing, retanning
and levelling action. Especially appropriate for
white leathers and leathers dyed to pale shades
that are required to have high lightfastness.
112
Retanning
Retanning
The following product groups were developed for retanning chrome tan-
ned leather and are still mainly used for this purpose. Yet some of them
have a strong affinity to the collagen and are therefore increasingly used
in metal free combination tannages.
Structurs of aromatic and aliphatic retanning agents
Aromatic tanning agents
Phenolic tanning agents Non-phenolic tanning agents
Replacement tanning agents Auxiliary and
White-tanning agents bleach-tanning agents
Pretanning and retanning agents
Aliphatic tanning materials
Polycondensation
Aldehyde tanning Paraffin derivatives and
and polymerisation
agents fats
compounds
Formaldehyde Methylol urea Paraffin sulfochloride
Glutaraldehyde Methylol melamine Fatty alcohol
Dialdehyde starch Methylol dicyandiamide Fish oil
Diisocyanate
Acrylates
113
Retanning
Some basic constituents of synthetic tanning agents
OH
Phenol
Dihydroxydiphenyl sulfone OH OH
– SO2 –
Naphthalene
ß-Naphthol OH
Aromatic ether –O–
These basic constituents are attached to one another with the aid of
formaldehyde through methylene bridges. They are adjusted to the
optimum degree of condensation (binuclear and trinuclear), made water-
soluble by sulfonation or sulfomethylation and adapted by means of buf-
fering systems to meet application requirements.
114
Retanning
BASF synthetic tanning and retanning agents
1. Pretanning agents
Basyntan RS-3 Pretanning agent applied prior to vegetable tan-
ning. Accelerates the penetration of vegetable
tanning agents and gives pale leathers with a
fine grain. Conc.: 96 %
Basyntan TM Liquid Pretanning agent for lightening the colour of
vegetable-tanned leather. Can also be used for
deacidification and as a retanning agent for
lightening the colour of chrome-tanned leather.
Conc.: ca. 45 %
2. Synthetic tanning agents and retanning agents
Basyntan AN/ For retanning leathers that are intended to be
Basyntan AN Liquid dyed to full, intense shades. Can be combined
with chrome and aluminium tanning agents.
Basyntan AN: Conc.: 95 %,
pH ca. 3.7
Basyntan AN Liqu.: Conc.: ca. 41 %,
pH ca. 4
Basyntan ANF Liquid Gives level dyeings with high coverage, with
little bleaching of the shade. Retanning agent
with a medium filling action. Conc.: ca. 37 %,
pH ca. 5.2
Basyntan D For retanning chrome-tanned leather. Gives
high fullness. Conc.: 96 %, pH ca. 4.2
Basyntan DLE/ All-round tanning agents for full, soft leathers.
Basyntan DLE-T Liquid Basyntan DLE: Conc.: 96 %,
pH ca. 3.3
Basyntan DLE-T Liqu. Conc.: ca. 40 %,
pH ca. 3.9
115
Retanning
Basyntan DLX-N Lightfast syntan with a strong tanning action
and high fastness. Especially appropriate for
tanning wet white and reptile skins, and for
retanning white leathers and other types of leat-
her with high lightfastness and heat resistance.
Conc.: 96 %, pH ca. 4.2
Basyntan FC Auxiliary tanning agent with a bleaching action
and an excellent dispersing effect. Can be used
to neutralize and retan chrome-tanned leathers
with a sensitive grain and in vegetable tanning.
Conc.: 95 %, pH ca. 1.4
Basyntan I/ Tanning agents that can be used to accelerate
Basyntan IZ vegetable tannages and to enhance the colour
of the leather. They can increase the yield. They
can be used in retannages applied to chrome-
tanned leather in order to obtain leather with a
tight grain, a full handle and a good response to
dyeing.
Basyntan I: Conc.: 96 %,
pH ca. 3.8
Basyntan IZ:. Conc.: 92 %,
pH ca. 4
Basyntan MLB/ Especially recommended for all types of milled
Basyntan MLB Liquid leather such as upholstery, automotive and
garment leathers and nappa shoe uppers.
The leather has a fine, even grain after milling.
It can be dyed to very level, intense shades
and possesses good fastness.
Basyntan MLB: Conc.: 95 %,
pH ca. 4
Basyntan MLB Liqu.: Conc.: ca. 40 %,
pH ca. 4
Basyntan N Very appropriate for all types of soft, full leather.
Conc.: 95 %, pH ca. 4
Basyntan SL Retanning agent with high fastness for use on
soft leathers with a full handle and a tight grain.
Especially appropriate for shoe uppers.
Conc.: 95 %, pH ca. 3.8
116
Retanning
Basyntan SW Liquid Basyntan SW Liquid is a very effective pretan-
ning and tanning agent for wet white, especially
for automotive leather. It also performs just as
effectively as a wet blue retanning agent for all
types of automotive and upholstery leather, and
for garment, shoe and white leathers. The
retanned leather has a fine, tight grain and can
be dyed to brilliant, level shades.
Conc.: ca. 42 %, pH ca. 4.5
Basyntan WL/ For retanning all types of leather with high
Basyntan WL Liquid fastness. The leather has a fine grain and
responds well to buffing.
Basyntan WL: Conc.: 95 %,
pH ca. 3.7
Basyntan WL Liqu.: Conc.: ca. 40 %,
pH ca. 3.8
Basyntan X Universal retanning agent. Gives full, well
rounded leathers with a fine grain pattern. Has
a pronounced dispersing effect on vegetable
tanning agents. Conc.: 95 %, pH ca. 4.9
3. Polymeric retanning agents
Densotan A Novel type of polymer with an extraordinary
dispersing action, which makes it easier to con-
trol and opimize the processes in wet finishing.
Very effective for producing all types of water-
resistant leather. Excellent fastness, odour-free,
and low fogging, which makes it a very appro-
priate choice for automotive leathers.
Amphoteric polymer. Improves the depth of
Relugan AME
shade and levelness of leathers dyed with anio-
nic dyes. Can hide small defects in the grain
and improves the tightness of the grain.
Relugan RE Improves the fullness and softness of retanned
leathers without affecting the typical chrome-
tanned character of the leather.
117
Retanning
Relugan RF Can be used in chrome tannages and retanna-
ges for chrome-tanned leathers to improve
fullness and lightfastness of the leather and the
tightness of the grain. Boosts the exhaustion of
chrome.
Relugan RV Relugan RV improves the fullness of chrome-
tanned leathers and the tightness of the grain,
and reduces their elasticity.
Very effective in combination with vegetable
tanning agents. Speeds up vegetable tanning
processes, improves the fullness of the leather
and bleaches its colour.
Relugan SE Excellent alternative to conventional syntans.
Mainly used to retan leathers that are required
to have high lightfastness, high heat resistance
and a fine grain.
4. Resin tanning agents
Relugan D Lightfast resin tanning agent for full-grain
leather and corrected-grain chrome-tanned
leather. Improves fullness, buffability and the
tightness of the grain.
Relugan DLF/ Relugan DLF and DLF Liquid have an especially
Relugan DLF Liquid low formaldehyde content and are very effective
for enhancing the fullness of the leather in the
loosely structured areas of the skin. The leather
can be dyed to very level shades, and the
lightening effect on the intrinsic colour of the
leather is minimal. Leathers retanned with
Relugan DLF respond well to buffing, and
nubuck and suede can be dyed to more brilliant
shades.
Relugan S Resin tanning agent with a dispersing and level-
ling action. Leathers respond well to buffing and
can be dyed to brilliant shades.
118
Retanning
5. BASF Aldehyde-tanning agents
Relugan GT 50/ A 50 % and a 24 % solution of glutaraldehyde.
Relugan GT 24 Can be used for all types of leather as a retan-
ning agent or as the sole tanning agent. High
dispersing capacity for fat. Give soft, perspira-
tion-resistant leathers.
Relugan GTW Modified glutaraldehyde. Gives leathers with
high lightfastness and a fine, flat grain. Makes
leathers easier to dye, and enables them to be
dyed to intense shades.
Relugan GTP New aldehyde tanning agent with a more plea-
sant odour. Very effective for use on wet white.
Can be used to retan chrome-tanned leathers in
order to give soft leathers with a smooth grain,
a good response to dyeing and excellent wash-
fastness and perspiration resistance.
Relugan GX Odourless aldehyde tanning agent used to
retan chrome-tanned leather. Gives soft lea-
thers that can be dyed to very level, brilliant
shades. Excellent resistance to yellowing, which
enables it to be used for white leather and
leather dyed to pastel shades. Can also be
used to wet back crust without any ammonia
having to be used.
6. BASF Oil tanning agent
Immergan A Oil tanning agent for soft, white, leathers such
as glove leathers and garment leathers, which
are expected to be tear-resistant and washable.
Can be used in combination with fish oil and
Relugan GT 50/ GT 24 for tanning chamois
leather; and with Lutan BN for glacé-kid type
glove leathers.
119
Tanning
7. Tanning and retanning auxiliaries
Tamol GA Neutralizing agent for all types of chrome-tan-
ned leather. Improves the softness and fullness
of the leather and the elasticity of the grain.
Enhances the nap on suede. Gives more level
shades when dyed, speeds up vegetable retan-
nages.
Tamol M/Tamol MB Dispersing agents used to speed up the uptake
and improve the distribution of vegetable
tanning agents. These products promote the
penetration of dyes through chrome-tanned
leather and give more level shades.
Tamol NA The excellent buffering capacity of Tamol NA
promotes the neutralization of chrome-tanned
leather. It can be employed in retannages to
disperse retanning agents and dyes, and the
leather can be dyed to brilliant, level shades.
Reduces the formation of chromium(VI) and
acts as a scavenger for free formaldehyde.
Tamol NNI Dispersing and levelling agent. Promotes the
penetration of dyes through chrome-tanned
leather and wet white leather and gives more
level shades.
Tamol NNOL Tanning auxiliary with a neutralizing, retanning
and levelling action. Especially appropriate for
white leathers and leathers dyed to pale shades
that are required to have high lightfastness.
Bastamol K Fixing agent used to fix all types of anionic
tanning agents. Reduces the water absorption
of vegetable-tanned leather and the loss by
washing. Enhances the colour of the leather
and its perspiration resistance. Chrome-tanned
leathers are fuller and have a tighter grain.
120
Bleaching, fixation
Bleaching and fixation
Bleaching methods
1. Pelts and leathers tanned with formaldehyde, aluminium and
fish oil
a. Oxidation bleach:
1. Potassium permanganate/sodium bisulfite
2. Hydrogen peroxide
3. Sodium chlorite
b. Reduction bleach
2. Vegetable/synthetic tanned leather
a. Bleaching with Basyntan D, DLE, DLX-N or WL.
b. Bleaching with Tamol NNOL.
c. Bleaching with acid auxiliary tanning agents (Basyntan FC).
3. Chrome leather
a. Treatment with pale-tanning Basyntan or Tamol types.
b. Sodium thiosulfate/acid treatment (deposition of colloidal sulfur).
c. Bleaching the leather by deposition of insoluble white salts. Pre-
treatment with barium chloride or lead acetate and after-treatment
with sulfuric acid or magnesium sulfate or by deposition of titanium
dioxide.
121
Bleaching, fixation
BASF bleach-tanning agents and bleaching auxiliaries
Basyntan FC cf. chapter
Basyntan D, DLE, DLX-N “BASF synthetic and tanning and
Basyntan WL retanning agents”
Tamol NNOL Anionic, light fast levelling agent with
bleach effect.
Fixing agents for vegetable tannins and syntans
The object of fixing is to convert the unbound tannins and syntans in the
leather into such a form that they cannot be removed by washing.
Bastamol K Fixing agent used to fix all types of anionic
tanning agents. Reduces the water absorption
of vegetable-tanned leather and the loss by
washing. Enhances the colour of the leather
and its perspiration resistance. Chrome-tanned
leathers are fuller and have a tighter grain.
Loading agents
Product Chem. formula Properties
Magnesium sulfate MgSO4 · 7H2O Precipitates tan solutions,
(Epsom salt) increases weight, strongly
increases ash.
Produced on leather by
Barium sulfate BaSO4
(heavy spar) conversion of barium
chloride with sulfates or
sulfuric acid.
Produced on leather by
Lead sulfate PbSO4
conversion of lead acetate
with sulfates or
sulfuric acid.
Vegetable tanning materials and molasses are also used.
122
Tanner’s tools
fleshing knife
unhairing knife
scudding knife
shaving knife
tanner’s tongs
slating stone
beam
123
Tannery machines
Fleshing machine – operating principle
4
1 = knife cylinder
5
4
2 = pneumatic pressure roll
3
3 = backing roll
4 = transport rolls
1
2
5 = inlet – pelt to be fleshed
6 = outlet – fleshed pelt
6
Splitting machine – operating principle
1 = unsplit hide
2 = grain or top split
11
3 = flesh or bottom split
5
4 = bandknife with guide
2
5 = transport roll
10 6 = section roll
4
7 = doctor roll
1 8
8 = rubber roll
9 = backing roll
6 3
7 10 = table
9 9
11 = thickness adjustment
top
124
Tannery machines
Samming machine – operating principle
2
1 = sammed leather
3 2 = felt sleeve for taking
up water
3 = pressure roll with
spring bearing
1
4 = swivelling pressure
roll
4
5
5 = flattening knife
cylinder
2
6 = swivelling rubber
roll
6
Shaving machine – operating principle
1 = leather to be shaved
2 = table
4
3 = pressure roll
4 = transport roll
5
3
1 2
5 = knife roll
7
6 = repeller blades
6
7 = grinding disk
125
Tanning/retanning – Glossary
Glossary of terms relating to tanning and
tanning agents
Astringency
A term for the affinity of a tanning agent or a tan liquor for the skin sub-
stance. The astringency is dependent on various factors in tanning.
Acid value (titration acidity)
The titratable acidity is a measure of the free acids in a product. The acid
value is expressed in the number of mg 0.1 N NaOH required to neutra-
lize the free acids in 1 g of the product sample.
ml 0.1 N NaOH · 5.6 · 100
Calculation: = mg KOH = acid value
sample weight · dry weight
Affinity
An attractive force between substances that causes them to enter into
and remain in chemical combination.
Analytical strength (determination of tannin – filter method)
Preparation of an analytical solution for quantitative determination of
tannin according to the hide powder method. The solution must contain
4.0 ± 0.25 pure tannin per litre in order to obtain comparable values.
Ash
Total residue on ignition.
Binding capacity
Maximum amount of tanning agent bound by the hide substance. The
binding capacity gives an indication of the weight-imparting effect of
tanning materials.
Binding rate
The amount of tanning material bound within a certain period of time.
The binding rate decreases in the course of the tanning process.
Binding strength
The binding strength is determined by intensive washing of the leather.
Case-hardening
Occurs in tanning pelts that have not been properly prepared, when
tanning solutions of excessively high concentration are used at the
beginning of the tanning process. The uptake of tanning agents is
stopped and the inner zones of the pelts remain untanned even if the
pelts are left in the tanning liquor for a prolonged period.
126
Tanning/retanning – Glossary
Concentration
Sum of pure tans plus non-tans plus insolubles.
Degree of tannage
The number of parts of tanning material bound by 100 parts of hide
substance.
Flocculation point
The point at which a permanent flocculation occurs in basifying chrome
solutions; the closer a chrome liquor lies at the flocculation point, the
higher is its basicity and also its astringency.
Flocculation value
The amount (ml) of n/10 caustic soda required for 50 mg chrome to
attain flocculation.
Hide powder
Hide freed from epidermis, hair and subcutaneous tissue (true skin) and
uniformly disintegrated according to a standard method. A distinction is
made between untreated and prechromed hide powder. Used for quanti-
tative analysis of tanning agents.
Insolubles
Difference of total solids and total insolubles in solutions and extracts.
Non-tans
Solids retained in exhausted analytic tannin solutions or extracts after
tannage.
Olation
Olation is the linking up of chromium complexes with one another with
separation of water. The degree of olation is the proportion of olated
hydroxyl groups to the theoretically possible total amount of hydroxyl
groups per chromium atom. The higher the degree of olation, the higher
the stability of chrome solutions to acid.
Percentage of tans in total solubles
This value is determined as follows.
tans · 100
= percentage of tans in total solubles
tans · non-tans
Pure tannin
Tans in total solubles minus non-tans.
Salting out
The treatment of tan solutions with increasing amounts of common salt.
Thus, the astringency, particle size and susceptibility to electrolytes of tan
solutions are determined.
127
Tanning/retanning – Glossary
Self-basification
Basification is the introduction of hydroxy groups into the mineral tanning
agent complex = partial neutralization of the chrome tanning agents.
Chrome tanning agents are regarded as self-basifying when they are
used in conjunction with appropriate proportions of basifying agents
which dissolve at a slow rate.
Solids (total solids)
The dry residue of an analytical tannin solution or extract.
Solubles (total solubles)
The dry residue of a filtered analytical tannin solution or extract.
Sulfited tanning materials
Tanning materials to which sodium sulfite or sodium bisulfite is added
during the leaching or extracting process to increase the yield of tans.
Auxiliary tanning agents with dispersing effect, such as Tamol M, can also
be added to advantage.
Tanning and binding value
The tanning and binding value gives an indication of the quantitative and
qualitative uptake of vegetable and synthetic tanning agents by the hide
powder.
The tanning value is the total amount of tanning material taken up by the
hide powder.
The binding value, on the other hand, indicates only the irreversibly
bound portion of the tanning material.
Tans (pure tannin)
Total solubles minus non-tans.
Wet blue
Chrome tanned leather with bluish colour.
Wet white
Non-chrome tanned leather with a slightly yellowish color. Nowadays
often used for leather tanned with a combination of aldehyde and
vegetable/synthetic/polymeric tanning agents.
128
Emulsifiers, wetting agents
Emulsifiers and wetting agents
Chemical classification
Anionic products
1. Soaps and Turkey red oils
2. Sulfonated oils, fats and fatty acids
3. Alkyl sulfates
4. Alkyl sulfonates
5. Alkyl aryl sulfonates
6. Alkyl phosphates
7. Condensation products
a. Condensation with aliphatic hydroxy and amino sulfonic acids
b. Condensation with sulfocarboxylic acids
c. Condensation with amino carboxylic acids
d. Condensation with aromatic sulfonic and amino sulfonic acids
Cationic products
1. Condensation with amines
2. Condensation with urea derivatives
3. Condensation with tertiary nitrogen bases
Non-ionic products
1. Condensation with polyhydroxyl compounds
2. Hydroxyethylated products
a. of fatty acids
b. of fatty alcohols
c. of fatty acid amides
d. of fatty amines
e. of alkyl phenols and alkyl naphthols
3. Condensation with polyimines
Emulsion types
1. Oil-in-water emulsion
The outer phase is water.
Abbreviation: o/w emulsion
2. Water-in-oil emulsion
The outer phase is oil.
Abbreviation: w/o emulsion
129
Emulsifiers, wetting agents
3. Secondary emulsion
Abbreviation: (w/o)w emulsion
4. Tertiary emulsion
Abbreviation: (w/o-w)o emulsion
Oil H 2O
o/w emulsion w/o emulsion
Determination of emulsion type
a. Indicator test method
b. Drop diluting test method
c. Conductivity test method
d. Rubbing test method
e. Filter paper test method
f. Cobalt chloride test method
The main BASF emulsifiers and wetting agents for the leather and
fur industries
Eusapon S (nonionic) Soaking, liming, painting, bating, degreasing,
wetting back, scouring of fur skins; high emul-
sifying power for natural fats, strong wetting
effect.
Eusapon W Soaking, wetting back.
Lipamin OK (cationic) Wetting back, dyeing, fatliquoring.
Lipoderm N (anionic) Wetting back, dyeing, fatliquoring.
130
Fatliquoring
Fatliquoring
Purpose
The fibre elements dehydrated by tanning are coated with a fat layer to
give leather the desirable softness and handle by a sort of lubrication.
At the same time, fatliquoring influences the physical properties of the
leather, such as extensibility, tensile strength, wetting properties, water-
proofness and permeability to air and water vapour.
The principal basic fatliquoring substances
A. Biological fatty substances
1. Vegetable oils
a. Drying oils: linseed oil, hemp oil, poppy oil, nut oil, wood or tung
oil. (Limited use)
b. Semi-drying oils: colza or rape oil, maize oil, sunflower oil, soya
bean oil, cotton seed oil, rice oil.
c. Non-drying oils: olive oil, castor oil, ground nut oil (arachis oil), fruit
kernel oils.
2. Vegetable fats
Coconut fat, palm kernel fat, palm oil fat, Japan tallow.
3. Animal oils
a. Marine animal oils: seal oil, whale oil, dolphin oil (no technical use)
Fish oils: herring oil, sardine oil, menhaden oil
Liver oils: cod liver oil, shark liver oil
b. Land animal oils: neatsfoot oil, lard oil
4. Animal fats
Beef and mutton tallow, lard, butter fat, bone fat, horse grease.
5. Waxes
a. Vegetable: carnauba wax, candelilla wax, montan wax.
b. Animal: beeswax, wool grease.
B. Non-biological fatty substances
Paraffin waxes, mineral oils, olefins, processed hydrocarbons, synthetic
fatty acid esters and waxes, fatty alcohols, alkyl benzenes.
131
Fatliquoring
Characteristic values of the main fatty substances
Product Density Saponification value
Cod liver oil 0.921 – 0.928 179 – 193
Shark oil 0.865 – 0.929 85 – 188
Herring oil 0.917 – 0.931 179 – 194
Menhaden oil 0.925 – 0.935 189 – 198
Sardine oil 0.928 – 0.935 186 – 193
Ground nut oil 0.916 – 0.921 188 – 197
Olive oil 0.914 – 0.929 191 – 195
Castor oil 0.950 – 0.974 176 – 191
Cotton seed oil 0.913 – 0.927 191 – 199
Maize oil 0.920 – 0.928 188 – 198
Rape oil 0.911 – 0.918 172 – 176
Sesame oil 0.921 – 0.925 187 – 195
Soybean oil 0.922 – 0.934 188 – 195
Wood oil (Chinese) 0.936 – 0.945 188 – 197
Linseed oil 0.930 – 0.936 187 – 195
132
Fatliquoring
Unsaponifiable Iodine value Acid value Solidification range
matter
0.7 – 3.0 % 140 – 181 0.5 – 1.7 – 10 to 0 °C
2.0 – 56.0 % 100 – 200 0.1 – 3.0 – 20 to +10 °C
0.7 – 2.4 % 108 – 155 1 – 19
0.6 – 1.6 % 139 – 193 ca. +17 °C
0.5 – 1.8 % 154 – 196 1 – 19
0.3 – 1.0 % 83 – 103 ca. 1 – 13 to 0 °C
0.5 – 1.4 % 80 – 185 – 16 to 0 °C
0.3 – 0.4 % 81 – 186 – 18 to – 10 °C
1.0 – 2.0 % 101 – 121 – 16 to – 1 °C
1.3 – 1.6 % 117 – 123 – 15 to – 10 °C
0.5 – 1.6 % 94 – 105 0.5 – 6.0 – 10 to 0 °C
0.5 – 1.0 % 103 – 112 – 16 to – 3 °C
0.5 – 1.5 % 124 – 133 – 18 to – 8 °C
0.4 – 1.0 % 150 – 160 – 18 to + 2 °C
0.5 – 2.0 % 172 – 196 – 27 to – 16 °C
133
Fatliquoring
Characteristic values of the main fatty substances
Product Density Saponification value
Coconut oil 0.920 – 0.938 246 – 268
Palm oil 0.921 – 0.948 196 – 210
Neatsfoot oil 0.913 – 0.919 192 – 196
Sperm oil 0.875 – 0.890 125 – 149
Beef tallow 0.936 – 0.953 190 – 200
Horse grease 0.915 – 0.933 195 – 200
Egg yolk (egg oil) 0.914 – 0.917 184 – 198
Wool grease (wax) 0.940 – 0.970 77 – 130
Beeswax 0.950 – 0.966 99 – 100
Carnauba wax 0.990 – 0.999 78 – 93
Japan wax 0.963 – 1.006 207 – 238
Montan wax 1.000 – 1.030 60 – 90
Mineral oil 0.860 – 0.900 –
Paraffin oil 0.885 – 0.900 –
Paraffin wax – soft 0.866 – 0.911 –
Paraffin wax – hard 0.866 – 0.911 –
Ceresin 0.910 – 0.970 –
134
Fatliquoring
Unsaponifiable Iodine value Acid value Solidification range
matter
0.2 – 0.3 % 8 – 10 – +14 to +25 °C
0.2 – 0.3 % 51 – 57 – +31 to +41 °C
0.1 – 0.6 % 68 – 81 1.0 – 6.0 – 12 to – 6 °C
35 – 44 % 71 – 93 0.1 – 0.4 + 7 to +10 °C
0.1 – 0.3 % 32 – 47 0.5 – 5.0 +30 to +38 °C
0.4 – 0.7 % 74 – 94 – +22 to +37 °C
0.2 – 4.2 % 64 – 82 – + 8 to +10 °C
39 – 50 % 15 – 29 1.0 – 3.0 +30 to +40 °C
52 – 55 % 6 – 15 17 – 24 +60 to +63 °C
52 – 56 % 8 – 14 4–8 +83 to +86 °C
0.4 – 1.6 % 4 – 15 – +50 to +54 °C
25 – 60 % 8 – 15 28 – 32 +78 to +90 °C
– – – –
– – – –
– 0– 6 – +38 to +42 °C
– 0– 6 – +50 to +60 °C
– – – +62 to +70 °C
135
Fatliquoring
Classification of leather fatliquoring products
1. Untreated oils, fats and waxes
2. Emulsified oils and fats
3. Sulfonated oils, fats and fatty alcohols
a. sulfated products
(-C-O-S bond, ester-like, splittable)
b. sulfonated products
(-C-S bond, true sulfo acid, unsplittable)
4. Chlorinated oils and fats
a. chlorinated products
b. sulfochlorinated products
5. Oxidation products of oils and fats
6. Hydrolysis products of oils and fats
Fatliquoring methods
1. Oiling-off (mainly for sole leather)
2. Cold stuffing on the table
3. Hot stuffing by the dipping process
4. Fatliquoring (principal method)
a. fatliquoring in warm aqueous float
b. fatliquoring in cold aqueous float
c. dry fatliquoring (without float)
d. oiling by brush
136
Fatliquoring
BASF fatliquor range
1. Fatliquors based on natural oils
Lipoderm Liquor 1C All-round fatliquor based on fish oil. Fat content
(AOX-free) approx. 90 %.
Lipoderm Liquor A1 Chrome-resistant fatliquor with very low odour.
(AOX-free) Resistant to yellowing by light and at high tem-
peratures, very low fogging. Lipoderm Liquor
A1 can be used to fatliquor all types of soft
leather such as automotive, upholstery and
garment leather, nappa shoe uppers and soft,
milled leathers. Fat content approx. 70 %.
Lipoderm Liquor LA Leather treated with Lipoderm Liquor LA has a
(AOX-free) silky surface texture and a handle which is
pleasantly soft, full and supple. It can be used
to fatliquor all types of soft leather, especially
upholstery leather and garment leather.
Lipoderm Liquor LA’s excellent fastness and
very low fogging make it an ideal choice for
fatliquoring automotive leather.
Lipoderm Liquor LA can also be used to
improve the handle of nubuck.
Lipoderm Liquor PN Fatliquor for soft, stretchy leathers with a tight
(AOX-free) grain, a slightly greasy handle and high
fastness. Fat content approx. 60 %.
Lipoderm Liquor WF Reduces the water absorption and wettability of
(AOX-free) the leather, enhances the fatliquoring effect,
and gives a tight grain and a greasy handle.
Recommendable for use with the Densodrin
system for water-resistant leathers. Fat content
approx. 50 %.
137
Fatliquoring
2. Fatliquors based on synthetic oils
Lipoderm Liquor FP Polymeric fatliquor mainly used in combination
(AOX-free) with other fatliquors. High fullness, high
exhaustion, odourless, low fogging, high
yellowing resistance. For automotive leathers,
shoe uppers and leathers that are washable
and resistant to dry cleaning. Recommendable
for use with the Densodrin system for water-
resistant leathers.
Lipoderm Liquor PSE Lightfast, synthetic fatliquor for soft leathers.
(AOX-free) High penetration, high emulsifying power for
synthetic oils, resistant to chrome. Fat content
approx. 60 %.
Lipoderm Liquor SAF Recommended for fatliquoring high-quality
leathers such as aniline, softy, nappa and
suede. Penetrates well and gives the leather a
greasy handle and an elastic grain. Fat content
approx. 80 %.
Lipoderm Liquor SLW Lightfast, synthetic fatliquor with very high
(AOX-free) penetration for soft, washable leathers. Can
be used in combination with Densodrin types
to enhance the softness of water-repellent
leathers. Fat content approx. 60 %.
Lipoderm Liquor SOL Leather treated with Lipoderm Liquor SOL has
(AOX-free) a tight grain, a full handle and high fastness. It
responds very well to dyeing.
Lipoderm Liquor SOL can be employed as the
main component of mixtures of fatliquors which
can be applied to all types of leather, especially
shoe upper leather. We would recommend
combining Lipoderm Liquor SOL with selected
fatliquors from our range in order to control the
handle and specific properties of the leather.
138
Fatliquoring
3. Fatliquors based on natural and synthetic oils
Lipoderm Liquor CMG Gives very soft leather. Odourless, low-fogging
(AOX-free) and high fastness. Especially recommended for
automotive leather, upholstery leather, garment
leather and nappa shoe uppers. Fat content
approx. 60 %.
Lipoderm Liquor SC Mixture of natural and synthetic oils. Can be
used as the sole fatliquor applied to shoe
uppers. Fat content approx. 70 %.
4. Cationic fatliquors
Lipamin Liquor NO Lightfast, natural fatliquor, suitable for use in
(AOX-free) multicharge liquors, especially on leathers that
are vacuum dried. Fat content approx. 60 %.
Lipamin Liquor SO Lightfast, synthetic fatliquor. Resistant to
(AOX-free) yellowing at high temperatures, suitable for
use in multicharge liquors. Fat content
approx. 60 %.
5. Water-insoluble fatliquors
Immergan A Fatliquoring auxiliary. This product is lightfast. It
inhibits exudation and increases the tensile
strength of the leather.
Lipoderm Oil N1 Lipoderm Oil N1 is a natural raw oil with
characteristics similar to those of neatsfoot oil.
The leather gets a full, supple handle and a
particular smooth, fine grain.
Lipoderm Oil N1 can be recommended as a
fatliquoring additive for all types of chrome
leather, but especially for shoe uppers. If it is
used as a “grain oil” on vegetable tanned
leather, such as sole leather and case leather,
higher elasticity and gloss are achieved.
139
Fatliquoring
6. Fatliquoring auxiliaries
Lipoderm N Anionic emulsifier and stabilizer for anionic
(AOX-free) fatliquors, with an additional fatliquoring action.
Can be applied to washable leathers.
Lipamin OK Cationic stabilizer for cationic fatliquors, with an
(AOX-free) additional fatliquoring action.
Siligen HS Cationic emulsifier for fats and oils.
(AOX-free)
Analysis of leather fatliquoring agents
1. Water-insoluble fatliquoring agents
a. Determination of water content
b. Determination of non-volatile, non-fatty organic substances
(The insolubles in ether minus ash give the non-volatile, non-fatty
substances)
c. Determination of total volatile substances
(Water and organic solvents)
d. Determination of content of mineral matter
e. Fatliquoring substances
(Product weighed out minus water, volatile and non-volatile organic
substances and mineral matter)
f. Determination of fatty acids
g. Determination of unsaponifiable matter
2. Water-soluble fatliquoring agents
a. Determination of fatliquoring substances
(100 minus water, mineral matter and volatile organic
substances = % fatliquoring substances)
140
Fatliquoring
b. Separation into emulsifying and emulsified components
(according to Panzer-Niebuer)
Emulsified proportion = neutral fat, unsaponifiable matter, free
fatty acids (in petroleum ether solution)
Emulsifying proportion = emulsifiers (in aqueous/alcoholic
solution)
c. Testing for sulfonation
d. Determination of degree of sulfonation
(total SO3, inorganically and organically bound SO3)
e. Determination of degree of neutralization
f. Determination of neutral salts in sulfonated oils
The testing of water-soluble fatliquoring agents is laid down in the
German standard.
DIN 53345 Part 1 Sampling
Part 2 Characterization of ionic charge
Part 3 Determination of content of water and water-
soluble solvents
Part 4 Determination of content of water-vapour-vola-
tile and water-immiscible solvents
Part 5 Determination of content of fatty substances
and mineral substances
Part 6 Determination of pH in aqueous emulsion or
solution
Part 7 Determination of residual fat content of
fatliquoring baths
Part 8 Method for testing the stability to electrolytes
DIN 53346 Method for testing the stability to electrolytes of
fatliquors for fur skins.
141
Fatliquoring
3. The principal characteristic chemical values of fats and oils
The iodine value (IV) specifies the amount of unsaturated com-
pounds.
The acid value (AV) specifies the amount of free fatty acids con-
tained in the fat.
The saponification specifies the amount of potassium hydroxide in
value (SV) mg necessary for neutralizing 1 g fatty acid.
The ester value (EV) is a measure of the ester content of fats or
waxes. It is identical to the saponification value
of acid-free fats.
The peroxide value is a measure of the peroxide-bound oxygen
(PV) contained in fats or oils. It is used to assess the
degree of oxidation.
The iodine colour expresses the number of mg iodine in 100 ml
value (ICV) standard iodine solution showing the same
depth of shade as the sample.
142
Fatliquoring
General structure of fatliquors
Fatliquoring substances
Hydrophobic components Hydrophilic components
= emulsified components = emulsifying components
consisting of: consisting of:
unsaponifiable and emulsifiers and
saponifiable substances fatliquoring auxiliaries
= =
a. Biological fatty substances a. Anionic substances
(animal and vegetable (sulfates, sulfonates,
oils/fats) carboxylic acids)
b. Non-biological fatty b. Cationic substances
substances (paraffins, (amine salts, suphonium and
olefins, processed phosphonium compounds,
hydrocarbons, synthetic polyamines, fatty amines)
fatty acid esters, fatty
alcohols, alkyl benzenes, c. Nonionic substances
polyethers) (substituted polyalcohols,
polyglycol ethers)
+
Mineral matter
= inorganic salts
+
Volatile matter
= water, solvents
143
Fatliquoring
Courses of reactions in the production of fatliquors
1. sulfating
Fatty substance + H2SO4 R – O – SO3H
2. sulfiting
Fatty substance + O2 + NaHSO3 R – SO3Na
3. sulfochlorination
Fatty substance + SO2 + Cl2 + hÓ R – CH – SO3H
|
Cl
4. Esterification and hydroxyethylation
Fatty alcohol + x H2C – CH2 + H3PO4
O
R – O – (CH2 – CH2 – O)x – PO3H
144
Fatliquoring
Composition of natural oils and fats
Main constituents:
Mixtures of triglycerides of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids
HOOC – R1 H2 – C – O – CO – R1
H2 – C – OH
| |
HOOC – R2 2
2H – C – OH + = 2H – C – O – CO – R + 3 H 2O
| |
HOOC – R3 H2 – C – O – CO – R3
H2 – C – OH
Glycerine + fatty acid = triglyceride
Accompanying substances
Phosphatides, sterols (cholesterol, phytosterol), hydrocarbons (Squalene
C30H50), vitamins, colorants, aromatics and flavours.
145
Fatliquoring
Percentages (average values) of fatty acids in some oils and fats
Her- Beef Neats- Soya- Coco- Ground-
Trivial name – ring tal- foot bean nut nut Chemical
Fatty acid oil low oil oil oil oil designation
Caprylic a. C 8:0 7 Octanoic a.
Capric a. C 10 : 0 7 Decanoic a.
Lauric a. C 12 : 0 48 Dodecanoic a.
Myristic a. C 14 : 0 8 4 18 1 Tetradecanoic a.
Palmitic a. C 16 : 0 14 29 15 10 9 12 Hexadecanoic a.
Stearic a. C 18 : 0 2 23 3 2 3 4 Octadecanoic a.
Arachic a. C 20 : 0 2 Eicosanoic a.
Behenic a. C 22 : 0 4 Docosanoic a.
Palmitolic a. C 16 : 1 6 5 10 Hexadecenoic a.
Oleic a. C 18 : 1 8 35 60 25 7 54 Octadecenoic a.
Gadoleic a. C 20 : 1 1 Eicosenoic a.
Eruic a. C 22 : 1 Docosenoic
Linolic a. C 18 : 2 3 3 2 10 2 30 Octadecadienoic a.
(cis, cis)
Linolenic a. C 18 : 2 1 2 1 Octadecadienoic a.
(trans, trans)
Unsaturated
fatty a. C 20 : 2-6 25 –
Unsaturated
fatty a. C 22 : 3-6 19 –
146
Water-repellent treatment
Water-repellent treatment of leather
Purpose
Increasing the interfacial tension between leather fibres and water and
thus reducing or almost completely eliminating the wettability with water
by depositing water-repellents in the leather substance.
Hydrophobic = water-repellent
Oleophobic = oil- and dirt-repellent
The main water-repellents (general)
Chemical substances Mode of action
Water-insoluble fats, resins, Deposition, clogging the interfibrillar
waxes, polymers, etc. spaces. Mainly statical action.
Chrome fatty acid complexes, Fixation of the water-repellent
perfluorinated chrome fatty acid complex to the fibre.
complexes, chrome and aluminium Increasing the surface tension
alkylphosphates, etc. against water.
Compounds with free carboxylic Formation of a water-repellent
groups and complexing emulsi- complex on the fibre.
fiers, e. g. fatty acids and esters, Increasing the surface tension
soaps, dicarboxylic acids, esters against water.
of phosphoric acid, polymeric fatty
acids, imido acetic acid derivatives.
Polysiloxanes, carbon fluoride Surrounding the fibre with a
resins, etc. water-repellent film. Increasing the
surface tension against water.
Hydrophilic emulsifiers of the Clogging the interfibrillar spaces
water-in-oil type, e. g., alkylated by water absorption and
and alkylized derivatives of formation of emulsion and
succinic acid, derivates of citric swelling.
acid, esters of fatty acids of
polyvalent alcohols, hydroxy-
ethylated fatty acids or alcohols.
Nitrogen-containing compounds, Blocking the phenolic groups
e. g., pyridinium chloride derivatives, of tanning agents. Increasing the
alkylene derivatives, isocyanates. surface tension against water.
147
Water-repellent treatment
BASF water-repellents
All BASF water-repellents mentioned below are light fast and heat resis-
tant. They do not contain organic solvents or organic halogen com-
pounds, and so do not make any contribution to the AOX content of the
waste water.
The water-repellent effect can be generally improved by fixation with
metal salts.
Densodrin CD Anionic water repellent for leathers that are
expected to fulfil the highest standards of water
resistance. Appropriate for leathers tested by
the Maeser method. Contains silicone.
Densodrin EN Anionic water repellent with high fastness for
leathers with a medium degree of water
resistance. Appropriate for leathers tested
by the Bally Penetrometer method.
Densodrin ENS Anionic water repellent with high fastness for
leathers with a moderate to high degree of
water resistance. Appropriate for leathers
tested by the Bally Penetrometer method.
Contains silicone.
Densodrin OF Anionic, silicone-based water-repellent additive.
Applied in aqueous float with Densodrin CD,
Densodrin EN or Densodrin ENS. Enhances the
water resistance and softness of the leather
and gives a smooth, silky handle. Can also be
applied as a handle modifier in finishing.
148
Water-repellent treatment
Densodrin PS Silicone containing polymer emulsion. It forms
the basis of a new water-repellent system which
has been specially developed to make it easier
to produce stiff, water-resistant leather. Used in
combination with other water-repellents e. g.
Densodrin CD, Densodrin EN or Densodrin
ENS. Appropriate for leathers tested by the
Maeser method.
Densodrin S Anionic, silicone-based water-repellent additive.
Applied in an aqueous float with Densodrin CD,
Densodrin EN or Densodrin ENS as the main
water repellent.
Densodrin SI Additive which contains silicone. Used to
enhance the water resistance of leather,
especially in combination with other products
from the Densodrin range. Densodrin SI can
also be applied to crust or finished leather in
order to obtain a silky handle and to improve
softness.
Densotan A Novel type of polymer with a neutralizing and
retanning action. Very effective for producing
water-resistant leather. Boosts the penetration
of water-repellents, speeds up the process,
prevents drawn grain and enhances the
levelling and penetration of dyes. Stabilizer
for water-repellents and fatliquors. Used in
neutralization and/or in small amounts together
with the water-repellent.
149
Water-repellent treatment
Drum Dyeing
Colour spectrum (value given in nm)
Ultra- Violet
Yellow
Orange
Infra-
Blue Green Red
violet red
400 450 500 550
600 650 700 750
Range visible for the human eye
Absorption and reflection
Range of wave Absorbed spectral Reflected complementary
lengths* in nm colour colour
400 – 435 Violet Yellow-green
435 – 480 Blue Yellow
480 – 490 Green-blue Orange
490 – 500 Blue-green Red
500 – 560 Green Purple
560 – 580 Yellow-green Violet
580 – 595 Yellow Blue
595 – 605 Orange Green-blue
605 – 750 Red Blue-green
*Ranges selected at random because there are transition zones within
the colour range.
A selective absorption in the visible spectral range is necessary for the
formation of colours.
If, for example, the violet-blue portion of the white light is absorbed from
a body, the remainder of the colour (green and red-orange) is reflected;
the body appears to be yellow. If all light rays are reflected, the body
appears to be white and if all light rays are absorbed, the body appears
to be black.
150
Chromatic triangle for colour matching
Slate
le
rp
Pu
let
Le
m
liv
O
on
Gr
ee
n
Tu
rq
uo
ise
Drum Dyeing
Blue
Bordeaux
Orange Scarlet Red
151
Vio
Brown
Yellow
On the sides of the triangle are the shades obtained by mixing the pure
spectral colours yellow and red, red and blue, blue and yellow.
The area within the triangle is occupied by the shades which contain
components of all three basic colours.
e
Drum Dyeing
CIE chromaticitiy diagram
(CIE = Commission International de l’Eclairage)
In the CIE system, the standard colour values are expressed in terms of
chromaticity, i. e. X = redness, Y = greenness and Z = blueness. For the
two-dimensional representation of colours, only the relative chromaticity
values are specified:
X
–
relative redness x=
X+Y+Z
Y
–=
relative greenness y
X+Y+Z
relative blueness follows from x + – + – = 1
– y z
152
Drum Dyeing
520
530
0.8
510
540
0.7
550
560
0.6
Y 570
yellow-
500
green green
0.5
580
yellow
590
0.4
orange 600
620
red 630
blue-green 640
0.3
650
490 achromatic or 660
white point
690-780
0.2
purple
blue
480
0.1 470
460
450
440 380-410
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
X
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Drum Dyeing
CIELAB colour system (DIN 6174)
(Commission International de l’Eclairage LAB-System)
A system of colorimetric specification of shades, calculation of colour dif-
ferences in colour matching and determination of minimum metamerism
index or colour concentration and strength differences.
A colour can be fixed by the coordinates L, C, h.
white = 100 °
C* = chromaticity
L* = luminance
h = hue angle from 0° to 360°
green = yellow =
L*
180 ° 90 ° DE* = colour difference
DH* = hue difference
+ (not angle difference)
– + = sample deviates in
h C*
counting direction
–
+ – = sample deviates against
counting direction
blue = DC* = chromatic difference
270 ° red = 0 ° + = sample is purer
– = sample is duller
DL* = brightness difference
+ = sample is lighter
– = sample is darker
black = 0 °
(DL*)2 (DC*)2 (DH*)2
+ +
DE* =
CIELAB total colour space
For more information see the corresponding literature in chapter
„Technical literature“.
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Drum Dyeing
Chemical classification of leather dyes
1. Nitro and nitroso dyes
2. Metallized and non-metallized azo dyes
a. monoazo dyes
b. polyazo dyes
3. Diphenyl and triphenyl methane dyes
4. Sulfur dyes
5. Phthalocyanine
6. Anthraquinone and multi-ring dyes
7. Natural dyes
Classification of leather dyes according to their application
properties
1. Anionic dyes
a. acid dyes
b. direct (substantive) dyes
c. special dyes
d. dyes that can be dispersed in water
2. Cationic dyes
3. Oxidation dyes
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Drum Dyeing
BASF products for drum dyeing
Luganil Dyes (powder range)
Anionic dyes of uniform composition for all types of leather. Excellent
coloristic properties and high fastness.
Luganil Yellow G Clean, greenish yellow; metal-free.
Luganil Orange GGC Yellowish orange.
Luganil Orange NG Clean, yellowish orange; metal-free.
Luganil Orange NR Reddish orange.
Luganil Light Pale, yellowish brown for all types of aniline
Brown NG leather (shoe uppers, upholstery leather and
garment leather) with high lightfastness.
Luganil Brown GOL Pale, slightly reddish brown, especially for all
types of aniline leather (shoe uppers, upholstery
leather and garment leather) with high light-
fastness.
Luganil Brown NG Vivid, slightly reddish medium brown. Metal-
free, especially for finished garment leather.
Luganil Brown NK Rich medium brown; for all types of finished
leather.
Luganil Brown NGB Rich, yellowish medium brown, especially
recommended for all types of finished leather
(shoe uppers, upholstery leather and garment
leather) and for nubuck and suede shoe
uppers.
Brilliant, reddish medium brown, for shoe
Luganil Brown MFR
uppers (aniline, nubuck and suede), upholstery
leather and garment leather (aniline and
finished).
156
Drum Dyeing
Luganil Olive Brown N Yellowish olive brown. Iron-complex dye which
enhances the lightfastness of all types of shoe
uppers, garment leather, upholstery leather and
automotive leather.
Luganil Brown NGT Yellowish medium-to-dark brown. Iron-complex
dye, especially recommended for all types of
upholstery leather, automotive leather, garment
leather and aniline shoe uppers.
Luganil Brown NT Yellowish dark brown; Iron-complex dye,
especially recommended for all types of shoe
upper, upholstery and garment leather.
Luganil Brown NR Slightly reddish dark brown; metal-free, for
finished, nubuck and suede shoe uppers and
finished upholstery leather.
Luganil Brown RL Dark medium brown. Iron-complex dye,
especially recommended for all types of shoe
upper leather with high lightfastness, and for
unfinished upholstery leather and garment
leather.
Luganil Red Brown NB Very reddish medium brown. Gives excellent
results on aniline, nubuck and suede shoe
uppers, unfinished upholstery leather, garment
leather and automotive leather.
Luganil Red NG Fiery, yellowish red; metal-free.
Luganil Red EB Slightly bluish red; metal-free, with comparati-
vely high lightfastness.
Luganil Bordeaux B Neutral shade of bordeaux.
Clean, vivid medium blue.
Luganil Blue NL
Luganil Blue NGR Neutral, vivid blue; metal-free.
Slightly reddish blue.
Luganil Blue N
Luganil Dark Blue NB Navy blue; metal-free.
157
Drum Dyeing
Luganil Green NG Vivid, yellowish green.
Luganil Dark Green N Dark green dye with high colour strength,
metal-free.
Luganil Grey GC Yellowish shade of grey.
Luganil Black CN Slightly reddish black. Recommended for
improving the lightfastness of aniline, nubuck
and suede shoe uppers and all types of
upholstery, automotive and garment leather.
Luganil Black NT Intense, metal-free black dye. Recommended
for all types of shoe upper, upholstery, automo-
tive and garment leather.
Luganil Dyes Liquid
The Luganil Dyes Liquid are low salt anionic dyes possessing high colour
strength and high-level dyeing properties. They are suitable for dyeing all
types of leather.
Luganil Yellow Pale, yellowish brown.
Brown CL Liquid
Luganil Orange Reddish orange.
2R Liquid
Luganil Brown Slightly reddish dark brown.
BL Liquid
Luganil Red GL Liquid Slightly bluish red.
Luganil Bordeaux RB Neutral shade of bordeaux.
Liquid
Luganil Blue MRB Slightly reddish blue.
Liquid
158
Drum Dyeing
Luganil Black Neutral to slightly bluish black; metal-free dye
AS Liquid for dyeing leathers that are required to fulfil
high standards of fastness, such as automotive
leather.
Luganil Black SL Greyish black. Recommended for aniline shoe
Liquid uppers and all types of upholstery, automotive
and garment leather with high lightfastness.
Luganil Black TSU Deep, neutral, metal-free black dye.
Liquid Recommended for all types of leather, including
shoe upper, upholstery, automotive and
garment leather.
Lurazol Dyes
A range of anionic dyes which includes dyes of uniform composition and
mixtures. Can be used to dye all types of leather.
Lurazol Beige LF Neutral beige.
Lurazol Brown N3G Slightly reddish brown, especially appropriate
for finished shoe uppers and nubuck.
Lurazol Brown SEDK Reddish violet shade of brown; metal-free.
Lurazol Dark Brown B Slightly yellowish dark brown, metal-free, for
finished garment leather, upholstery leather and
shoe uppers.
Lurazol Red BN Slightly bluish red.
Lurazol Red SB Bluish red; metal-free.
Lurazol Bordeaux EBD Violet shade of bordeaux; metal-free.
Lurazol Brilliant Blue Clean, vivid blue; metal-free.
S2G
Lurazol Brilliant Blue Brilliant, clean blue; metal-free.
SBN
159
Drum Dyeing
Lurazol Blue EBL Reddish navy blue; metal-free.
Lurazol Green SEG Bluish green; metal-free.
Lurazol Green M2GL Bluish green.
Lurazol Black HS Neutral to slightly reddish black; metal-free. For
all types of leather that are to be dyed to deep
black shades.
Lurazol Black VB Slightly reddish black, metal-free. Excellent
penetration through all types of leather.
Lurazol Black Reddish black, metal-free. Recommended for
MRN New finished shoe uppers, nubuck and suede and
for finished upholstery and garment leather.
Lurazol Black S3T Deep, neutral black, metal-free. Improves the
buffability of nubuck and suede.
Lurazol Orange Neutral shade of orange, especially for leather
EBR Liquid fibre board.
Lurazol Black BAG Slightly bluish black.
Liquid New
Lurazol Black Reddish black. Recommended for aniline,
RS Liquid nubuck and suede shoe uppers and for all
types of upholstery, automotive and garment
leather.
Lurazol Black P Liquid Special finely dispersed preparation of a metal-
free, neutral black pigment with high colour
strength. Improves penetration and colour
strength in combination with black dyes from
the Luganil and Lurazol ranges and enhances
levelling, lightfastness and coverage of defects.
Recommended for all types of finished shoe
upper, upholstery, automotive and garment
leather.
160
Drum Dyeing
Selected Lurazol and Luganil Dyes with particularly good
penetration
1. Special Lurazol Dyes:
Lurazol Black P Liquid
2. Luganil Dyes in the brown range:
Luganil Brown NK
Luganil Brown NGB
Luganil Brown NGT
Luganil Brown NR
Luganil Brown NT
Luganil Brown RL
3. Luganil Dyes in the coloured range:
Luganil Red Brown NB
Luganil Red NG
Luganil Blue NL
Luganil Blue NGR
Luganil Green NG
Luganil Dark Green N
BASF basic dyes
Cationic charge. Give full shades on anionic substrate.
Leather Black Cationic dye, metal-free. Intense, reddish black.
VM Liquid
161
Drum Dyeing
Dyeing auxiliaries
Anionic products Levelling agents for anionic dyes;
Fixing agents for cationic dyes.
Tamol GA Lightfast anionic levelling agent for leather dyed
to dark shades with anionic dyes. Mordant for
basic dyes.
Tamol M/Tamol MB Anionic dispersing and levelling agents for
improving the penetration of anionic dyes and
tanning agents.
Tamol PM Liquid Anionic dispersing and levelling agent.
Promotes dye penetration.
Tamol NA Dispersing agent with a pronounced buffering
effect for retanning agents and dyes. Enables
leather to be dyed to intense, level shades.
Tamol NNOL Lightfast anionic levelling agent for pale shades
dyed with anionic dyes.
Tamol NNI Dispersing and levelling agent. Promotes the
penetration of dyes through chrome-tanned
leather and wet white leather and gives more
level shades.
Densotan A Anionic polymer solution used to boost
penetration and levelling. Can also be used
to wet back crust.
162
Drum Dyeing
Cationic products Fixing agents for anionic dyes;
Levelling agents for cationic dyes.
Tamol R Weakly cationic dyeing auxiliary used to pro-
mote penetration and improve levelling on
slightly retanned chrome leather. Negligible
brightening effect.
Bastamol B High-performance cationic fixing agent for anio-
nic dyes, fatliquors and tanning agents. Enhan-
ces washfastness and perspiration resistance.
Bastamol DRN Cationic fixing agent supplied in liquid form.
Especially effective for improving the washfast-
ness and perspiration resistance of leathers
dyed with anionic dyes. Can be used to deepen
shades, especially black.
Lipamin OK Cationic auxiliary used to reverse the charge
and deepen the shade of anionic dyes. Can
also be used to fix anionic dyes.
Special products
Amollan IP Water-miscible penetrator for impregnating and
spray staining.
Eusapon S Nonionic surfactant for wetting back crust.
Eusapon W Low-foaming surfactant for wetting back crust.
Lipoderm N Anionic levelling agent and dispersing agent
with a slight fatliquoring effect.
163
Drum Dyeing
Dyeing methods
1. Drum dyeing (drum, mixer, three-chamber automatic dyeing machine)
a. Dyeing in hot float
Most frequently used method.
b. Dyeing without float (dry or powder dyeing)
Effects accelerated penetration. To achieve good levelness of
shade the temperature should not exceed 25 °C.
c. Dyeing in steps (sandwich dyeing)
Depth of shade is improved by adding acid or cationic dyeing
auxiliary between two dye additions.
d. Effect dyeing
Production of cloudy, patchy or marbled dyeings with two- or
multitone effects.
e. One-side drum dyeing
Reverse side resisting with special polymer products.
2. Paddle dyeing
Dyeing in long floats. Mainly used for dyeing wool sheep skins to
prevent felting of the wool.
3. Dyeing in the through-feed machine (Multima)
Dip dyeing of crust leather; very short immersion time in dye liquor.
4. Colouring by curtain coater
5. Colouring by roll coater
6. Colouring by screen printing
A printing paste is pressed by means of a squeegee onto the leather
through a fine screen with a negative pattern (mono- or multicoloured).
7. Spray staining
Application of dye solutions by means of a compressed air spraygun.
Depth of penetration is regulated by the addition of organic solvents
or penetrators.
8. Tray dyeing and brush staining. Methods only seldom used nowadays.
164
Drum Dyeing
Parameters of dyeing in the production of high-quality leathers
Quality requirements:
1. Perfect levelness of shade
2. Maximum depth of shade achieved with minimum amount of dye
3. Good covering of defects
4. High colour fastness
5. Complete dye penetration
Influencing factors
1. Neutralization:
a. Uniform neutralization is essential (overneutralization and
unsatisfactory neutralization should be avoided).
b. Increasing the pH value improves penetration in dyeing and
retanning, but reduces the absorption of dyes.
c. Addition of masking products also improves penetration of dyes
and retanning agents and reduces absorption rate of dyes
(as in b.). They may have a bleach effect and improve the levelness
of shade (overneutralization may impair the levelness).
2. Retanning:
a. Purely chrome tanned leather has the highest affinity for anionic
dyes.
b. Any retanning changes the absorption behaviour and fixation of
anionic dyes.
c. Conventional self-tanning, white-tanning and polymer tanning
agents reduce the affinity and give level but bleached shades.
High amounts may impair dye fixation and may result in
unlevelness during drying.
165
Drum Dyeing
Depth of shade in relation to retanning
purely chrome
Regulan GT 50
Tamol NA
Basyntan AN
Tamol M
vegetable tanning material
conventional syntans
0 100 % depth of shade
20 40 60 80
3. Fatliquoring:
a. Higher sulfited or sulfochlorinated fatliquors may reduce the
absorption properties and/or cause stripping of dye.
b. Depending on the kind and amount of emulsifying components,
improved penetration and levelness of shade can be achieved with
reduced depth of shade (e. g. Densotan A, Densodrin EN,
or Lipoderm N).
4. Dyeing auxiliaries:
a. Anionic products have a levelling effect on anionic dyes and a fixing
effect on cationic dyes.
b. Cationic products have a levelling effect on cationic dyes and a
fixing effect on anionic dyes.
5. Choice of dyes:
Dyes that are used together in a dyeing formulation must be combin-
able with each other, as otherwise unlevel shades will result. Combin-
ability is dependent on
– chemical structure,
– absorption rate of dyes,
– build-up properties of dyes,
– kind of retanning.
Improvements may be achieved by the use of dyeing auxiliaries, such
as Tamol R, Tamol NNOL, Tamol M.
166
Drum Dyeing
6. Addition of dyes:
a. Addition in dissolved form is beneficial, particularly for high-quality
aniline dyeings.
b. Addition of dyes in several portions increases the depth and level-
ness of shades.
7. Float length:
High float lengths promote distribution of dyes and auxiliaries.
Particularly important:
– if affinity of dyes or auxiliaries is high,
– if chamber dyeing vessels are used.
8. Dyeing temperature:
a. High dyeing temperatures increase the affinity and absorption rate
of dyes (may impair levelness of resulting shades on retanned
leathers) and improve fixation of dyes.
b. Low dyeing temperatures promote distribution of dyes during
dyeing process and reduce fixation of dyes.
c. The optimum procedure is to maintain a low temperature (30 °C) at
the beginning of the dyeing process and a high temperature
(> 50 °C) towards the end of the dyeing process to fix the dyes.
Absorption rate in relation to temperature
Example showing Luganil Brown NT at a pH value of 6.5
Dye absorbed after
5 min 10 min 20 min 30 min
at 30 °C 55 % 70 % 86 % 92 %
at 50 °C 62 % 74 % 87 % 93 %
167
Drum Dyeing
9. Fixation:
a. Addition of formic acid in one portion only if dye is extensively
absorbed. If dye is still contained in the dyebath, addition should
be made in several portions, as otherwise levelness is impaired.
b. Running time after addition of formic acid is dependent on thick-
ness and pH value of leathers. If running time is too short, poor
fixation of dyes and unsatisfactory levelness of shades will result.
c. Fixation with strongly cationic products (Bastamol B, Bastamol
DRN) should, in principle, be carried out in a fresh bath. Before
addition of fixing agents, the fixing bath should contain only the
least amounts of dyes, as otherwise the fastness to wet and dry
rubbing is impaired. The amount to use is dependent on the
amount of dye employed, and on the thickness and type of leather
(grain leather, suede).
Through-feed dyeing machine
(Multima-type = Staub patent)
Principle: the crust leather to be dyed is passed through a heatable dye
solution. The penetration achieved depends on the dyeing conditions.
leather
dyed
feed-in
leather
Advantages compared to drum dyeing:
1. More rapid production of dyeings starting from crust leather.
2. Less water and energy required.
3. Good penetration.
4. The processing operations samming, setting out and toggling become
superfluous.
168
Drying
Drying
Drying methods for leather
1. Air-drying without supply of energy (hang-drying)
2. Air-drying with supply of energy
a. air circulation method (hang-drying)
b. drying in channel, tunnel, chamber (hang-drying)
c. wet-toggled drying
d. paste drying
3. Hot water drying
a. Secotherm process (paste drying)
4. Infrared drying
5. Vacuum drying
6. High-frequency drying
169
Drying
Air humidity
1. Maximum air humidity:
= maximum amount of water vapour in gram contained in 1 m3 air at a
certain temperature (saturation capacity).
g/m3 g/m3
°C °C
– 20 1.06 35 39.5
– 10 2.30 40 50.9
– 5 3.36 45 64.9
± 0 4.89 50 82.7
5 6.80 55 105.0
10 9.4 60 130
15 12.8 70 197
20 17.2 80 293
25 23.0 90 419
30 30.2 100 590
2. Absolute air humidity:
= the actual amount of water vapour in gram present in 1 m3 air.
3. Relative air humidity (in percent)
absolute air humidity in g/m3
R.H. % =
maximum air humidity in g/m3 (saturation capacity)
Various moisture contents of leather
Ready for shaving = 30 – 45 % moisture
After drying = 8 – 14 % moisture
After conditioning = 18 – 22 % moisture
After sawdusting = 26 – 32 % moisture
(moistening)
170
Drying
Machines for dry finishing – operating principles
Jaw-type staking machine Vibration staking machine (Mollisa type)
upper jaw
plastic
plate
clamping
device pivoting rubber roll
leather
leather
lower jaw
adjustable steel staking blades
Air-blast dedusting machine
dust exhaust
compressed
air supply
leather
conveyor belt
Through-feed buffing machine
leather
buffing cylinder
dust
exhaust
brush rolls
171
Drying
Flow chart of processes from wet blue to dry finishing
Wet blue – shaved
Washing
Neutralizing
Washing
Retanning
Dyeing
Fatliquoring
Fixing
Horsing up
Setting out
Drying
Conditioning
Staking
Toggling
Trimming
Sorting for finishing
The order in which the individual processes are carried out can be varied
to produce the type of leather desired.
172
Finishing
Finishing
The term "finishing” is used in the leather industry to describe a whole
series of processes and operations which improve the properties and
appearance of the leather and finally turn it into that exquisite material.
It is the final chemical and mechanical treatment of the leather before
manufacturing end products (shoes, bags, wallets, clothes, etc.).
Purpose
To improve the use serviceability of the leather in general by:
• protecting it from damage by water, soil and mechanical action;
• improving its physical properties such as its lightfastness and rub
fastness
• levelling out patches and grain faults;
• applying an artificial grain layer to splits or corrected grain leathers;
• modifying the surface properties (shade, lustre, handle, etc.).
Finishing is often used to obtain fashionable effects.
Classification of finishes
a. According to the finishing techniques:
• Spray finish: Finishes applied exclusively by spraying.
• Roll coating finish: Applied by screen rollers or engraved rollers.
• Curtain coating finish: Highly covering coats applied to such
leathers as corrected grain or splits.
• Padding
• Film transfer finish: Polymer foils or lamination. Also made with two
component PU mixtures on coating machine (direct or reverse
process).
• Glaze finish: Glazing machine and non-thermoplastic binders. High
quality leathers.
• Plate finish: Different types of plating machines. High gloss and
smooth films.
• Glaze/plate finish: Combination of both.
• Embossed finish: Artificial or fancy grain by embossing.
• Foam finish: Highly covering finish especially for furniture and car
seat leathers.
173
Finishing
b. According to the finishing effects:
• Corrected grain finish: Buffed leathers with high covering finish,
embossed.
• Aniline finish: Unpigmented transparent coats. Natural appearance
of the grain.
• Semianiline finish: Small amounts of pigment and/or dyes mixed
together with binders or covering base coat plus aniline top coat
with dyes only.
• Opaque finish: Covering pigments and binders.
• Brush-off finish: Two-tone effect that appears after using a felt
polishing disk.
• Easy-care finish
• Antique finish: Irregular two-tone effect normally made by applying
waxes.
• Fancy finish
• Two- or multi-tone finish: Applied in two or more finishing coats of
different colours by angle spraying, padding or printing.
• Invisible finish: Impression of unfinished surface using light coats
and mechanical operations.
• Craquele finish: Cracked effect.
c. According to the main finishing material used:
• Polymer or binder finish: The most common. Applying formulations
of thermoplastic binders based on polyacrylate, polyurethane or
polybutadiene and subsequent plating.
• Casein finish: Non thermoplastic protein or protein-like products for
glazed finishing.
• Nitrocellulose solution or emulsion finish: Solvent lacquer. Film for-
ming material is nitrated cellulose dissolved in organic solvents.
Emulsion lacquers are water dilutable.
• CAB-finish solvent lacquer based on cellulose aceto-butyrate.
Better resistance to yellowing than nitrocellulose.
• Patent finish: Thick polyurethane lacquer coat, high gloss finish.
174
Finishing
General structure of finish
Spray staining e.g. with Eukesolar Dyes 150 Liquid,
Spray staining to colour the surface of undyed leather or to level
drum dyed shades.
Impregnation, e.g. with Corial Binder IF and Amollan
Grain
IP, to tighten the grain and impart a settled appea-
impregnation
rance and smoothness to the surface.
The adhesive coat consists of pigments, binders and
Adhesive coat auxiliaries to ensure good adhesion of the whole
finish coat. Today generally aqueous systems are
used for adhesive coats.
The (pigmented) base coat is usually harder than the
Base coat
adhesive coat. It imparts the desired appearance to
(pigmented)
the leather and levels out the surface. Today gene-
rally aqueous systems are used for (pigmented) base
coats.
The top coat determines the final appearance and
Top coat the handle of the leather surface and has a decisive
influence on the fastness properties of the finish.
175
Finishing
Leather finishes and dyes
Brightening dyes
Used together with pigment finishes of high covering power or alone in
top coating mixtures to enhance the brilliance of plate and glaze finishes
or of spray and brush stained shades.
The brightening dyes should meet the following requirements:
• compatibility with finishing agents,
• good light fastness,
• fastness to bleeding and hot plating,
• good fixing properties,
• fastness to alkali and formaldehyde,
• low content of extenders.
1. Water-soluble or water dilutable brightening dyes
Chiefly the Eukesolar Dyes 150 Liquid are used and to a less extent
selected anionic dyes of the Luganil and Luganil Liquid ranges or
colour lakes (about 2 parts anionic dye stirred together with 1 part
basic dye in dissolved form at boiling temperature).
2. Solvent-soluble brightening dyes
Eukesolar Dyes 150 Liquid
BASF dyes for spraying, curtain coating and printing and for sha-
ding finishes
Eukesolar 150 liquid dyes
Special metal complex dyes of uniform composition dissolved in an
organic solvent. They can be diluted with water or with solvents. Mainly
used for spraying, curtain coating, roll coating and printing. Can also be
used for dyeing and shading finishes and for printing designs on leather.
Dyes of this type are distinguished by their high brilliance, high lightfast-
ness and resistance to spotting by water droplets.
Eukesolar Yellow G 150 Liquid Greenish yellow.
Eukesolar Yellow R 150 Liquid Reddish yellow.
Eukesolar Orange R 150 Liquid Neutral orange.
Eukesolar Red G 150 Liquid Neutral red.
Eukesolar Red B 150 Liquid Bluish red.
176
Finishing
Eukesolar Rubine B 150 Liquid Bluish rubine shade of red.
Eukesolar Brown 2G 150 Liquid Yellowish brown.
Eukesolar Brown 5R 150 Liquid Reddish brown.
Eukesolar Brown 2RG 150 Liquid Violet shade of brown.
Eukesolar Brown R 150 Liquid Dark brown.
Eukesolar Brilliant Blue 150 Liquid Strong, deep blue.
Eukesolar Navy Blue R 150 Liquid Slightly reddish dark blue.
Eukesolar Black R 150 Liquid Deep, neutral black.
Eukesolar Black 2R 150 Liquid Very deep, reddish black.
Eukesolar Blue FL Liquid Slightly greenish blue.
Pigment colours
In contrast to dyes (only absorption) pigment colours act by absorption
and dispersion, giving rise to an overall reflection. In leather application
mostly liquid pigment preparations with constant colour strength and
coloristic properties are used. By blending different base colours to the
final shade, a high flexibility of colour processing is achieved.
Inorganic pigments perform generally well with respect to covering, which
is important for correction of grain defects or if a high colour consistency
is requested (automotive leather). Special attention should be paid to the
use of pigments containing toxic heavy metals (mercury, cadmium, lead,
chromate VI, etc). Of course, these materials are subject to regulations
concerning consumer care (e. g. children articles). Some pigments carry
special fastness restriction, e. g. fastness to sulfide, cleaning agents with
strong complexing compounds (e.g. EDTA) or alkaline pH (soap), as well
as the ability to interact with vegetable tanning agents. Certain pigments
can start crosslinking butadiene binders by initiating radical reactions
which leads finally to a stiff and brittle film.
1. Earth colours
White Gypsum (calcium sulfate)
Chalk (calcium carbonate)
Barite white (barium sulfate)
Barium carbonate
Yellow Yellow ochre (ferric hydroxide)
Brown Terra di Siena (clay with ferric hydroxide)
Umber (manganese-containing iron ore)
177
Finishing
Red Red ochre (various iron oxides)
Green Ferric silicate
Grey Graphite (carbon), slate
2. Mineral colours (synthetic pigments)
White Titanium white (titanium dioxide): Rutile, Anatas
Yellow Chrome yellow (lead chromate)
Bismuth vanadate
Red Chrome red (molybdenum-modified lead
chromate)
Brown Processed iron oxides
Green Chromium oxide green
Chromium hydroxide green
Blue Cobalt blue (cobalt/aluminium oxide)
Ultramarine blue (silicium/aluminium oxide)
Manganese blue (barium manganese oxide)
Black Various carbon blacks
Organic pigments perform mostly well in brilliance and brightness, but
covering is usually poor. Applied often in transparent effect prints. Cover-
ing is maintained by combination with covering inorganic pigments or
special additives, i.e. pigment extenders, also matting agents improve
covering a lot.
Due to their organic structure, bleeding with plasticizers is sometimes
possible and tested as migration fastness. If above-average demands are
made on the fastness of the leather (e.g. as requested for automotive
leather according to ISO 105 B06) lightfastness and heat resistance
should be tested in advance.
BASF pigment preparations
They are used to give the desired covering and colour, especially in bot-
tom coats and seasons in the finishing process.
Lepton Colours N
Aqueous, casein-free pigment preparations that do not obscure the grain
pattern by overloading of the grain. With Lepton Colours N no embrittle-
ment of the base coat is observed. They are distinguished by high cover-
age, high fastness properties (e.g. wet rubfastness, lightfastness, resi-
stance to migration) and are extremely ageing resistant.
178
Finishing
Lepton White N Clean, neutral white.
Lepton Yellow N Vivid pale yellow.
Lepton Yellow GN Greenish yellow; free of lead chromate.
Lepton Caramel N Yellowish pale brown.
Lepton Brown GN Full reddish brown.
Lepton Dark Brown N Chocolate brown.
Lepton Red N Vivid, neutral red.
Lepton Red BN Slightly bluish red; free of lead chromate.
Lepton Red Violet RN Bluish red.
Lepton Blue N Deep, neutral blue.
Lepton Black N Neutral black.
Eukesol Brilliant Black HSN Deep black for clear glazed finishes.
Coloured top coating agents
Corial EM Base Black DK Black nitrocellulose pigment preparation
for gloss effects. Can be diluted with water
or organic solvents. Very versatile and very
easy to use, and top coats based on this
product have high mechanical fastness.
Corial EM Finish Black Nitrocellulose emulsion. For top coats with
a pronounced filling effect and excellent
fastness.
179
Finishing
Thermoplastic binders
Acrylic binders are dispersions mainly of polyacrylic, and polymeth-
acrylic esters, usually produced by radical initiated emulsion polymeriza-
tion of the unsaturated monomers.
Butadiene binders are usually produced by radical initiated emulsion
polymerization of the unsaturated monomers butadiene, and styrene.
There is only one of the two unsaturated functions of butadiene used for
polymerization, so the polymer still contains double bonds for later reac-
tions (e.g. crosslinking by radical initiated reactions with light, or special
metallic impurities of pigments).
PU (Polyurethane) binders: The polymers are produced in a two (or
more) step process by poly-addition reaction of poly-isocyanate com-
pounds and –OH terminated poly-ol compounds of varying molecular
weight. Typical isocyanates often used are aromatic TDI (toluylen-di-
isocyanate), and MDI (methylene-diphenyl-isocyanate), or aliphatic IPDI
(iso-phorone-di-isocyanate), and HDI (hexamethylene-diisocyanate) res-
pectively. As OH-functional compounds different small molecular weight
diols like butanediol-1,4, hexanediol-1,6 are used as well as polyester-
polyols from dicarbonic acids (e.g. adipic acid) and ethyleneglycol or
polyetherpolyols like polypropyleneoxide/ethyleneoxide copolymers.
Solvent based reactive systems consist of corresponding, in a non-reac-
tive organic solvent dissolved isocyanate compound (hardener) and
polyol. Mixing and reaction of the two components form the polymer
during the application, a classical two-component (2-K-)-system.
Dispersion: High molecular weight polymers which are non-soluble in
water form aqueous dispersions (like natural latex) if the polymer particles
are appropriately stabilized. The particle size of a dispersion will generally
affect some properties: the finer the particles, the clearer the appearance
at a given concentration will be, or, the coarser a dispersion is, the whiter
it will be as a liquid. On the other hand, at the same concentration, smal-
ler particles will lead to a higher viscosity compared to larger ones of the
same composition.
Polymer films are formed from dissolved or dispersed polymers by
drying.
In case of dissolved polymers, "lacquers”, this process is continuously
forming a homogeneous polymer film.
180
Finishing
In case of polymer dispersions certain stages of drying are postulated
until at least the polymer particles will coalescence under the action of
capillary forces. This type of film formation is highly affected by proper
process, and temperature control.
Film values are property values measured at polymer films. Most com-
mon are hardness (Shore A or D), glass transition (sometimes melting)
temperature, low temperature break temperature, elongation at
break/tear strength (or E-modulus), water uptake etc. Most data are typi-
cal for a polymer performance in comparison. Yet careful interpretation is
necessary as the absolute data are highly sensitive to side parameters
like sample size (mostly much thicker as the actual filmthickness in a
finish!), shape, conditioning (air humidity!), preparation (temper effects!),
etc.
Plasticizers are additives mostly used to lower the Tg of a given polymer
to improve film formation, softness, and other properties. Plasticizers are
well known from cellulose-ester, and PVC technology, where they play an
important role in the overall polymer formulation. In modern aqueous bin-
der technology, certain "solvent" or "VOC" compounds perform as tem-
porary plasticizer during film formation.
VOC, abbreviation for Volatile Organic Compounds, are often so-called
solvents with a certain vapour pressure, which are emitted to atmosphere
during or after the application process. Nowadays in a lot of countries
VOC are subject of regulations for ecological reasons (smog-formation,
greenhouse warming).
HAPS, abbr. for Hazardous Air Polluting Substances, are special VOC
listed in inventories by authorities in USA.
Tg, abbreviation of "glass (transition) temperature”, an important property
of thermoplastic polymers, connected to minimum film formation tempe-
rature (MFT) as well as low temperature flexibility. Polymers with a Tg
lower than ambient perform generally more "soft”, polymers with a higher
Tg more "hard” or "stiff”. Typical Tg’s of some one-monomer-based poly-
mers are given in the table. By random copolymerization of different
monomers intermediate values are achieved (internal plasticizing). By
block copolymerization, in situ mixtures of different polymer building
blocks are possible having each its own Tg, so-called 2 (or more) step
polymers.
181
Finishing
The main basic substances for the production of polymer binders
Basic substance Abbreviation Tg*)
Cis-butadiene Bu – 100 °C
2-Ethylhexyl acrylate EHA – 62 °C
Hexyl acrylate HA – 57 °C
n-Butyl acrylate BA – 45 °C
Ethylacrylate EA – 24 °C
Vinylidene chloride VDC – 18 °C
Iso-butyl acrylate iBA – 10 °C
Vinyl propionate VPr + 5 °C
Methyl acrylate MA + 6 °C
Lauryl acrylate LA + 15 °C
n-Butyl methacrylate BMA + 27 °C
Vinyl acetate VAC + 28 °C
t-Butyl acrylate tBA + 35 °C
Ethyl methacrylate EMA + 65 °C
Styrene St + 100 °C
Acrylonitrile AN + 105 °C
Methyl methacrylate MMA + 105 °C
Acrylic acid AS + 165 °C
Acryloamide AM + 165 °C
Methacrylic acid MAS + 228 °C
Methacrylamide MAM + 243 °C
*) Tg = glass transition temperature at which the physical properties of
the polymerized base substance, such as refraction index and density,
undergo a change and a transition of the polymer from a glass-like to a
plastic condition takes place.
The Tg of a polyurethane molecule is made up by several facts: PU mole-
cules have a segmented structure: There are hard segments and soft
segments. Therefore at least two values of Tg (for each segment at least
one) can be found. For the cold flex behaviour of the polymer, the lower
of the two values is important. When PU molecules form a film there are
also interactions between different molecules. These interactions lead to
the phenomenon that no discrete Tg value can be measured, but a broad
region where the glass transition takes place.
In leather finishing a formulation of different polymers, pigments and fillers
is used, crosslinked by a reactive crosslinker. The Tg values of each com-
ponent are not additive. Therefore a cold crack temperature can not be
calculated by summing up the Tg values of the components of the finish.
182
Finishing
Base coating agents and binders
1. BASF acrylic binders (aqueous)
All Corial Binder types are supplied as aqueous polymer dispersions.
Leather Ground F Acrylic polymer solution. Penetrates deeply into
the leather and tightens the grain. Impregnating
agent for full-grain and corrected-grain leathers.
Corial Binder IF Finely divided, flexible and water-resistant.
Used in impregnation and in pigmented coats.
Corial Microbinder AM Finely divided; for aniline-type finishes with a
natural break and high coverage for defects.
Corial Binder DN Very soft binder with excellent flexibility at low
temperatures. Gives finishes with a good fill and
high flexometer values. Gives leather with a
natural, elegant break.
Corial Binder BAN Forms tough and highly flexible films of low-
tack. It gives finishes with a natural, elegant
appearance and very high fastness.
Corial Binder ON Forms a soft film with low-tack. Can be thick-
ened with ammonia.
Corial Binder OBN Forms a soft, stretchy film with low tack.
Corial Binder OT Forms a very flexible, low-tack film. Finish has a
dry, pleasant handle. Especially appropriate for
all types of aniline leather.
Corial Binder OK Forms a soft, very elastic film with low tack.
Gives finishes with high wet fastness. Very ver-
satile.
Forms a strong, fairly rigid film. Undergoes a
Corial Binder AS
very large increase in viscosity when ammonia
is added. Excellent combinability with casein
binders for glazed finishes. Used as an additive
in curtain coating and to adjust the viscosity of
finishes.
183
Finishing
Application performance of acrylic binders
DN
BAN
OBN
IF
low filling high
OT
OK
ON
AM P
F
low hardness high
In the following tables the acrylic binders marked with • are especially
recommended to achieve very high levels of the indicated application
performance and fastness properties.
184
Fineness of
grain
• •
Leather Ground F
• •
Corial Binder IF
•
Corial Microbinder AM
• •
Corial Binder DN
•
Corial Binder BAN
•
Corial Binder ON
•
Corial Binder OBN
•
Corial Binder OT
Corial Binder OK
Corial Binder AS
Fastness performance of acrylic binders
Dry flex
Wet flex
Fullness
Cold flex
Penetration
Soaking
resistance
Embossability
Finishing
Low tackiness
•
• •
•
Dry adhesion
•
•
•
Lightfastness
•
Leather Ground F
• • • •
Corial Binder IF
•
Corial Microbinder AM
• • • • •
Corial Binder DN
• • • • •
Corial Binder BAN
• •
Corial Binder ON
• •
Corial Binder OBN
• •
Corial Binder OT
• •
Corial Binder OK
•
Corial Binder AS
185
Finishing
2. BASF compact binders
The Lepton Binder types are so called compact binders, i. e. special
formulations of binders, fillers and waxes for easy use in standard
applications.
Lepton Binder NA Very finely divided compact binder for finishing
full-grain leather. Does not impair the natural
appearance and handle of the leather.
Lepton Binder LF Special binder with high fastness. Gives smooth
finishes with a good fill and a natural handle.
Recommended for finishes that incorporate
water-based top coats.
Lepton Binder SD Compact binder with a very pronounced filling
effect on full-grain leathers and splits. Very high
fastness and easy to use. Especially recom-
mended for full-grain shoe uppers.
Lepton Binder GC Compact binder with good levelling for finishing
corrected-grain cattlehide. This product is
distinguished by its good fill and excellent fast-
ness. Can be applied alone or in combination
with other binders. Recommended for all types
of corrected-grain leather.
Lepton Binder PA Compact binder with a good filling effect for
very elastic finishes with high fastness. Particu-
larly appropriate for finishing corrected-grain
leather.
Lepton Binder SPC Lepton Binder SPC is a binder based on poly-
urethane and an acrylic polymer. It can be used
to formulate finishes with high coverage and
excellent flex resistance that give very good
results when they are embossed. It is particu-
larly recommended for finishing high-quality
splits and corrected-grain cattlehide, such as
bag leather or shoe upper leather.
186
Application performance of compact binders
low filling high
Finishing
SP
LF
GC PA
SD
NA
low hardness high
In the following tables the compact binders marked with • are especially
recommended to achieve very high levels of the indicated application
performance and fastness properties.
187
Finishing
Fineness of
grain
Fullness
Penetration
Embossability
Low tackiness
• •
Lepton Binder NA
•
Lepton Binder LF
•
Lepton Binder SD
•
Lepton Binder GC
•
Lepton Binder PA
•
Lepton Binder SPC
Fastness performance of compact binders
Wet flex
Cold flex
Wet
rubfastness
•
• •
•
Dry flex
Soaking
resistance
•
Lightfastness
• •
Lepton Binder NA
• • • • •
Lepton Binder LF
• • •
Lepton Binder SD
•
Lepton Binder GC
• • •
Lepton Binder PA
• • • •
Lepton Binder SPC
188
Finishing
3. BASF Polyurethane binders (aqueous)
All Astacin Finish types are supplied as aqueous polyurethane dispersi-
ons. The suffix "TF” means that the corresponding products are free of
alkyl-tin compounds.
Astacin Ground UH TF Improves the adhesion of finishes applied to oily
or water-repellent leathers without impairing
their water repellency. Free of organic solvents.
Astacin Finish ARU TF Finely divided dispersion, free of organic sol-
vents. Forms a soft, flexible film with low tack
and a good fill. It does not accentuate defects
to any great extent. Especially appropriate for
finishing shoe uppers, upholstery leather and
garment leather.
Astacin Finish PUD Gives highly elastic finishes with high fastness.
Free of organic solvents.
Astacin Finish SUSI TF Enables the highest standards of fastness to be
attained. It is distinguished by its softness and
flexibility. Especially recommended for elegant
finishes with a natural break. Free of organic
solvents.
Astacin Finish PUM Soft polyester-polyurethane dispersion. Due to
its outstanding film forming properties it is
especially recommended for finishes with high
fullness. Gives finishes with high cold crack
resistance, good embossability and excellent
adhesion.
Astacin Finish Soft polyester-polyurethane dispersion, free of
PUMN TF organic solvents. Fills and seals the surface of
the leather. Gives finishes with high cold crack
resistance, good plating and embossing pro-
perties, as well as excellent adhesion.
Astacin Finish PW TF Dispersion of a soft polyurethane. Forms a
tough film with high water resistance and excel-
lent fastness. Especially recommended for box
calf-finishes of full-grain shoe uppers and bag
leather, and for finishes applied to nappa
leather and soft splits.
189
Finishing
Astacin Finish PF TF Forms a tough, dry, non-tacky film. Finishes for-
mulated with this product fulfil the highest stan-
dards of fastness, and have a pronounced filling
effect. They do not stick and they respond very
well to embossing.
Astacin Finish PFM TF Dispersion of polyurethane and duller. Forms a
tough, dry non-tacky film. Finishes formulated
with this product fulfil the highest standards of
fastness. They do not stick and respond well to
embossing.
Application performance of polyurethane binders
PF
TE
PFM
TF
PUMN
TF
SUSI
filling high
PUD
TF
PW
TF
ARU
TF
UH
TF
low hardness high
In the following tables the polyurethane binders marked with • are espe-
cially recommended to achieve very high levels of the indicated applica-
tion performance and fastness properties.
190
Astacin Ground UH TF •
Astacin Finish ARU TF •
Astacin Finish PUD •
Astacin Finish SUSI TF • •
Astacin Finish PUM •
Astacin Finish PUMN TF • •
Astacin Finish PW TF •
Astacin Finish PF TF •
Astacin Finish PFM TF •
Fastness performance of polyurethane binders
Dry flex Fineness of
grain
Wet flex
Fullness
Cold flex
Penetration
•
Soaking
resistance
Embossability
Finishing
Low tackiness
•
•
•
•
• •
• •
• •
•
Dry adhesion
•
Lightfastness
Astacin Ground UH TF • •
Astacin Finish ARU TF • • •
Astacin Finish PUD • •
Astacin Finish SUSI TF • • • •
Astacin Finish PUM • • • • • •
Astacin Finish PUMN TF • • •
Astacin Finish PW TF • • • • •
Astacin Finish PF TF • • • • •
Astacin Finish PFM TF • • • • •
191
Finishing
4. BASF butadiene binder
Corial Binder BU Gives non-tacky finishes with an excellent fill
and a good response to embossing. Can be
applied to splits and as a filler in many different
types of finish.
5. Non-thermoplastic BASF binders and top coats (water-dilutable)
Luron Binder U Thermosetting binder and top coat for plated
and glazed finishes. Improves the resistance of
finishes to acetone and their resistance to pla-
ting at high temperatures.
Luron Lustre E Elastic, thermosetting binder for glazed finishes.
Luron Lustre TE Elastic, thermosetting binder for glazed finishes.
Reduces the tack of polymer finishes.
Luron Lustre CO Compact binder for glazed finishes applied to
corrected-grain leather.
Luron Matting Matting agent for thermosetting finishes. Can
also be used as a filler for many types of plated
finishes.
Luron Top Tough top coat which responds well to embos-
sing. Especially appropriate for aniline leathers.
Luron Top AC For glazed, high-gloss finishes.
192
Finishing
Top coats and lacquers
1. BASF top coating agents (water-dilutable)
All products with the suffix "TF” are free of alkyl-tin compounds
Astacin Matting MA TF Aqueous matt top coat based on polyurethane.
Dullness is very stable against repolishing. Very
flexible at low temperatures. Can also be used
in base coats.
Astacin Matting MT Polyurethane dispersion. Gives a water-resi-
stant, matt finish with a pleasant handle and
high cold flex resistance.
Astacin Matting MTB Polyurethane dispersion. Aqueous matt top
coat with high water resistance. For finishes
that are required to meet high standards of
ageing resistance. Very flexible at low tempera-
tures.
Astacin Top UT Polyurethane dispersion for use in lightfast top
coats with medium gloss, high cold crack resi-
stance and high fastness.
Astacin Top GA TF Polyurethane dispersion. Forms a soft, flexible
film with low tack. Used as the gloss compo-
nent of aqueous finishes that are expected to
fulfil the highest standards of fastness. Can also
be employed in base coats.
Astacin Top LH TF Polyurethane dispersion for aqueous, high-
gloss finishes. Can be used for patent leather.
Lepton Matting T Gives a deep matt finish. Leathers have a plea-
sant, dry handle and a settled appearance.
Mainly used in solvent-free finishes and top
coats, but can also be used for emulsion-type
finishes that contain solvents.
193
Finishing
Lepton Top LB Easy-to-use gloss top coat for aqueous
finishes. This product gives finishes with high
mechanical fastness, variable gloss and a
smooth, pleasant handle without any crosslin-
king agents having to be used. However, top
coats can be crosslinked with Astacin Hardener
CN or Corial Hardener AZ if above-average
demands are made on the fastness of the
leather.
Lepton Top HT Novel acrylic top coat. Finishes with a very
natural appearance and high fastness can be
obtained without any additional crosslinking
agents having to be added. However, top coats
can be crosslinked with Astacin Hardener CN or
Corial Hardener AZ if above-average demands
are made on the fastness of the leather. Lepton
Top HT can be used in finishes applied to a
wide variety of different types of leather, such
as shoe upper leather, bag leather, garment
leather and upholstery leather.
2. BASF top coating agents: Nitrocellulose emulsions
(dilutable with water and/or solvents)
Corial EM Finish G Nitrocellulose emulsion which can be used as a
top coat or as a co-binder for finishes. Gives
leathers with a pleasant lustre, a natural handle
and high fastness.
Corial EM Finish ES Nitrocellulose emulsion. Gives a soft, silky
handle. Especially appropriate for finishing all
types of garment leather.
Corial EM Finish KN Nitrocellulose emulsion which can be used as a
top coat or as a co-binder for finishes in combi-
nation with polymer dispersions. Leathers
finished with this product have a very high
gloss, excellent wet rubfastness and a natural
handle.
194
Finishing
Corial EM Finish M Nitrocellulose emulsion. Gives a matt or silky
matt finish with high fastness and a smooth
handle.
3. BASF gloss and matt lacquers
(dilutable only with organic solvents)
Corial Lacquer AW Soft lacquer. Very high fastness and high gloss.
Corial Matt Amine-resistant top coat for matt leathers with
Lacquer CMR high fastness. Free of nitro groups and resistant
to yellowing. The solids contained in this pro-
duct do not pose any fire hazard. Very appro-
priate choice for white and pale shades.
Corial Matt Gives a silky matt finish with a supple handle.
Lacquer NW
Corial EM Top SL Nitrocellulose emulsion with a pronounced filling
effect for use in water-resistant top coats with
high lustre. Gives a smooth, waxy handle.
195
Finishing
BASF finishing auxiliaries
1. Crosslinking agents
Astacin Hardener CN Highly concentrated isocyanate crosslinking
agent for aqueous finishes. Very easy to mix
into finishes. Fulfils the highest standards of
fastness.
Corial Hardener AZ Crosslinking agent for polymer binders. Easy to
mix into finishes. Fulfils the highest standards of
fastness, especially the wet rubfastness.
2. Fillers and waxes
Lepton Filler CEN Plate-release agent for base coats. Improves
levelling and gives leathers with a full, settled
appearance and a natural, pleasant handle.
Lepton Filler FCG Filler and plate-release agent with a matting
effect. Gives finishes with a good fill and a
smooth, settled appearance. Especially recom-
mended for finishing corrected-grain leather
and splits.
Lepton Filler K Gives finishes with a good fill and a settled
appearance on many different types of leather.
Improves levelling and imparts thixotropy.
Lepton Filler H Modified wax emulsion for improving the level-
ling and fill of finishes. Gives a silky, waxy
handle.
Lepton Matting MF Applied in base coats. Finishes that contain
Lepton Matting MF have a good fill, and the
leather has a very matt, non-tacky surface.
Lepton Matting MF is recommended for all
types of full-grain and corrected-grain leather
with a pigmented or semi-aniline finish, especi-
ally upholstery, automotive and shoe upper
leather.
196
Finishing
Lepton Wax A Cationic wax emulsion. Improves the handle
and fill of finishes, and prevents leathers
sticking when they are plated or piled. Gives a
waxy handle.
Lepton Wax B Nonionic wax emulsion. Improves the handle
and gives a smoother, more glossy surface.
Excellent plate-release agent. Especially appro-
priate for use in finishes based on thermoplastic
binders.
Lepton Wax 11 Used in base coats and top coats as a plate-
release agent and to improve the response of
the finish to glazing. Used in base coats to
obtain pull-up effects after polishing or plating.
Lepton Wax 16 Plate-release agent for use in base coats and
aqueous top coats. Gives a soft, muted handle.
Lepton Wax 20 Plate-release agent for use in base coats and
aqueous top coats. Does not impair the wet
rubfastness. Used in base coats to obtain a
slight pull-up effect after polishing.
Lepton Wax P 60 Concentrated wax emulsion for use in base
coats. Gives very high, even coverage, which
makes it particularly effective for upgrading
fancy leathers, shoe uppers and upholstery
leather made from low-quality raw stock.
3. Specialities
Amollan IP Penetrant for use in combination with impreg-
nating agents for corrected-grain leathers and
in finishes applied by spraying.
Amollan E Defoamer for highly viscous finishes applied by
forward roll coating. Gives excellent levelling.
Used in combination with Amollan VC.
197
Finishing
Amollan VC High-performance levelling agent for all types of
finishes. Particularly appropriate for use in
highly viscous finishes applied by forward roll
coating. Used in combination with Amollan E.
Amollan Lustre VN Glazing agent for nubuck and suede. Used to
increase the colour strength and brilliance of
the shade.
Lepton Filler AF Foaming agent for foam finishes applied accor-
ding to the BASF Airfoam System. Stabilizes
foam.
Lepton Paste VL Used to adjust the viscosity of aqueous
finishes. Especially appropriate for use in
finishes that employ polyurethane binders.
Eukesol Oil SR Plasticizer for casein-based pigmented coats
and binders.
Eukesol Oil Ground Cationic oil emulsion, capable of being dyed
with basic dyes. Compatible with anionic bin-
ders. Reduces the absorbency of the leather
surface and improves its elasticity.
4. Pull-up oils and waxes
Eukesol Oil 4070 For pronounced pull-up effects.
Eukesol Oil 4080 For pronounced pull-up effects with a waxy
handle.
Eukesol Oil SLP For pronounced pull-up effects with an oily
handle.
Eukesol Oil HP For pull-up effects on water-resistant leathers.
Free of organic solvents. Does not impair the
water resistance of the leather. Can also be
used as a handle modifier for suede.
198
Finishing
Eukesol Wax SFB Solid, solvent-free wax for pronounced pull-up
effects. Gives a dry handle and does not impair
the water resistance of the leather.
Corial Wax SV Pull-up wax dissolved in an organic solvent.
5. Handle modifier
Corial Wax S Handle modifier for solvent-based finishes.
Gives a soft, silky handle.
Corial Wax EG Handle modifier for aqueous and solvent-based
finishes. Gives a smooth handle.
Corial Wax EBT Handle modifier for aqueous and solvent-based
finishes. Gives a slightly sticky handle.
Corial Wax G Makes the surface of the finished leather smoo-
ther, silkier and softer. Can also be used to
improve the rubfastness in many cases.
Corial Wax H Water-repellent wax dissolved in organic sol-
vents. For nappalan, nubuck and suede. Can
be used in all types of solvent-based finish.
Lepton Wax WA Used to improve the wet rubfastness of
aqueous finishes. Gives better levelling and
improves the performance of all types of finish
tested by the Taber method. Gives a smooth
handle.
Lepton Wax CS Handle modifier for aqueous finishes. Gives a
soft, smooth handle and improves the wet rub-
fastness.
Used to improve the rubfastness of all types of
Corial Wax TA
finish tested by the Taber method.
199
Finishing
Solvents and diluents used in finishing
1. Solubilizers for aqueous systems
Product
Abbreviation
Boiling range °C
Flash point °C
Ignition temp. °C
Density at
20/4 °C g/cm3
Water solubility,
20 °C (g/100 g
water)
Risk class VbF
1-Methoxypropanol-2* PM 119-122 32 270 0.962 A II
Butylglycol (2-Butoxy- BG 168–172 67 230 0.8995–0.902 A III
ethanol)*
Butyldiglycol (2-(2- BDG 228–232 105 210 0.952–0.956 –
Butoxyethoxy)-ethanol)*
Dipropyleneglycol-methyl- DPM 185-195 80 205 0.957 A III
ether (tech. Mixture)*
Propylenecarbonate** PC 240-243 123 455 1.204 240 –
N-Methylpyrrolidone NMP 204 91 245 1.028 A III
dist.**
* recommended as substitutes for Ethylglycol
** potential substitutes for Dimethylformamide (DMF)
200
2. Solvents for lacquers
Product
Abbreviation
Boiling range °C
Flash point °C
Ignition temp. °C
Density at
20/4 °C g/cm3
Water solubility,
20 °C (g/100 g
Finishing
water)
Risk class VbF
Ethyl acetate (Acetic 74– 78 –6 460 0.898–0.902 8 AI
acid ethylester)
iso-Butylacetate (Acetic i-BuAc 115–118 19.5 425 0.866–0.871 6.1 A II
acid iso-butylester)
n-Butylacetate (Acetic n-BuAc 124–128 26.5 415 0.880–0.881 5.9 A II
acid n-butylester)
2-Ethyl-hexylacetate 192–205 77 270 0.870–0.875 A III
Butylglycolacetate 185–188 76 300 0.940 A III
These products can be used instead of Toluene or Xylene as solvents for
lacquers.
Although the solvents listed in the tables are less hazardous than pre-
viously used solvents, the necessary precautions when handling organic
solvents must be observed.
201
Finishing
Operating principle of compressed air spraying machine and
spraygun
jet needle
finish feed-in
compressed air compressed air
compressed air compressed air
air jet air jet
atomised dye solution
202
Finishing
Operating principle of curtain coater
finish feed-in
head
finish curtain
leather conveyor
overflow pipe
for maintaining
constant level
finish
supply tank
203
Finishing
Operating principle of roll coater
a. Direct process
feed doctor blade
finish
screen or
doctor blade
pattern roll
leather
backing roll
conveyor belt
b. Indirect process
feed doctor blade
finish
rubber roll
screen or
doctor blade
pattern roll
leather
conveyor belt
204
Finishing
Terms applied to some types of leather
1 ”ASA” leather = chrome tanned cattle hide/splits for protec-
tive articles used in industry ("DIN” leather).
2 Bag leather = vegetable/combination tanned leather for
bags.
3 ”Blankleder” = vegetable tanned, fairly thick cattle hide
leather for belts and seats.
4 Book binding leather = thin, vegetable/synthetic tanned sheep and
goat skins.
5 Box calf = chrome tanned, elegant calf skin upper
leather.
6 Box side = chrome tanned cattle hide upper leather; soft
types = softy box sides.
7 Car upholstery leather = soft cattle hide grain leather with high-grade
finish.
8 Chamois = fish oil tanned sheep skin splits; very soft and
absorbent.
9 Chevrette = imitation glazed kid; mostly sheep or fairly
large goat skins.
10 Clothing leather = thin, soft leathers from cattle hides, sheep
and goat skins.
11 Corrected grain = chrome tanned cattle hide upper leather with
leather corrected grain surface.
12 Furniture leather = chrome tanned, thin, soft, large area cattle
hide.
13 Glazed kid = elegant, fine-grained, chrome tanned goat
skin upper leather.
14 Hat band leather = vegetable/synthetic tanned sheep or goat
skin leather.
205
Finishing
15 Hunting = buffed cattle hide or calf skin suede leather
with grain on reverse side.
16 Hydraulic leather = chrome or combination tanned leather for
technical purposes.
17 Insole leather = mostly combination tanned cattle hide leather
of medium thickness.
18 Lining leather = vegetable combination tanned leather for
shoe linings.
19 Morocco leather = vegetable tanned East Indian bastard skins
with characteristic boarded grain pattern for
bags.
20 Patent leather = upper leather finished with high-gloss poly-
urethane lacquers.
21 Nappa = generic term for all soft and light leather
types.
22 Nubuck leather = tight, buffed cattle hide or calf skin leather
with silky feel.
23 Russet leather = vegetable tanned, strongly fatliquored cattle
hide or fairly large calf skin upper leather.
24 Russia leather = vegetable tanned cattle hide/calf skin leather
treated with birch tar oil.
25 Shrunk leather = cattle hide or sheep and goat skins treated
with astringent tanning materials or glutaral-
dehyde to produce a characteristic grain
pattern.
26 Skiver = vegetable or chrome-synthetic tanned thin
grain splits of sheep skins for book binding or
liming leather.
27 Softy = a term for soft upper leather.
28 Sole leather = vegetable tanned, unsplit cattle hide leather
for shoe soles.
206
Finishing
29 Suede = leathers of all origins with velvet-like nap pro-
duced by abrasive action.
30 Technical leather = leathers from various types of rawstock, spe-
cially tanned for transmission belting, gas-
kets, bellows, etc.
31 ”Vacheleder” = in Germany a type of bottom leather, insole
leather.
32 “Vachette” = thin, large, vegetable or combination tanned
cattle hide leather for bags.
33 Veal = chrome tanned grasser skin upper leather
similar to boxcalf.
34 Waterproof leather = water-resistant chrome or combination tan-
ned leather, fairly thick cattle hide upper
leather.
35 “Wildleder” = often used as an incorrect term for suede or
velvet leather.
207
208 Leather goods
Leather goods
Leather is used in the production of a variety of different articles, for
shoes, garments, upholstery and, increasingly, in the automotive sector.
Leather is a very versatile material, and the various different applications
in which it is used make very varied demands on its performance.
More than 90 % of all the leather that is produced is used in the manufac-
ture of the following products.
• Shoes
• Automotive upholstery and trim
• Upholstery for furniture
• Clothing
The processes employed in the beamhouse mainly depend on the type
of raw stock that is treated, but the choice of tannage and retannage is
largely governed by the application for which the leather is intended. This
also applies to the subsequent stages in the process, from dyeing and
fatliquoring through to finishing, which determine the individual character
and specific properties of the leather.
We at BASF supply a high-performance range of products for all stages
of the process from the beamhouse through to finishing. Information is
available on the Internet at www.basf.com/leather.
Shoe leather
Of all the leather produced world-wide, shoe upper leather accounts for
by far the largest proportion. Other types of leather such as linings, sole
leather and insole leather are also used in the production of footwear. Yet
upper leather alone is produced in very many different varieties, ranging
from lightweight, fashionable shoe uppers through to hard-wearing,
breathable uppers for sport shoes and heavy, water-resistant leather
uppers for hiking boots or industrial footwear.
209
Leather goods
Types of leather
Full-grain, aniline Corrected-grain cattlehide
Full-grain, semi-aniline Suede
Full-grain, pigmented Splits
Soft nappa Sport shoe leather
Water-resistant leather Leather for industrial and safety shoes
Pull-up leather Fancy leathers
Nubuck Vegetable-tanned leather
Box calf
In spite of all this diversity, there are a number of general principles that
apply to all kinds of shoe upper leather.
Raw stock Mainly cattlehide, but also sheepskin and goatskin, etc.
Beamhouse It is important for hides and skins to be opened up well.
Tannages • Chrome tannages
• Wet white tannages are increasingly being used for
children’s shoes and sport shoes.
• Vegetable tannages
Retannages For a tight grain and reasonably firm leather:
• Vegetable tanning agents and syntans with a good
filling action.
• Resin tanning agents and dispersing agents for uni-
form fullness, and for enhancing the nap of nubuck
and suede.
• Polymers for enhancing the fullness of leather and
tightness of the grain, improving the levelling of the
dyeing process and hiding defects in the grain.
• Aldehydes for improving the perspiration resistance,
especially of uppers for unlined shoes.
Dyeing Predominately brown and black shades
It is usually sufficient for dyes to have moderately high
lightfastness and heat resistance, because a fairly heavy
finish is applied to the leather.
Stringent demands are made on the migration resi-
stance and perspiration resistance of dyes.
210
Leather goods
Fatliquoring Different types and quantities of fatliquor are applied
depending on the type of leather.
The aim is to obtain a tight grain, high tensile strength
and high tear propagation resistance.
Water repellents Many types of shoe upper leather are increasingly
expected to have enhanced water resistance, and
modern water repellents allow these demands to be
met without impairing the breathability of the leather.
Finishing • Attractive visual appearance (fashionable, elegant
shades)
• High flexibility
• High water resistance
• High resistance to staining by water droplets
• High permeability to water vapour
Automotive leather
Elegant leather seats are no longer exclusively found in luxury vehicles.
Buyers of mid-range vehicles are increasingly choosing a leather interior
trim. High-quality leather has a reputation for exclusivity, long life and ser-
viceability, and it is easy to maintain. Leather is used for dashboards,
door panels, steering-wheel covers and gear lever handles as well as for
seat covers and head rests.
The interior temperature inside vehicles can vary within extremely wide
limits, and the leather has to be able to withstand intense sunlight and
substantial wear and tear. Manufacturers of high-quality automotive
leather have to have a high level of expertise at all stages from the selec-
tion of raw stock through to finishing. The art of finishing plays a more
important role here than in the production of any other type of leather.
211
Leather goods
Attention needs to be paid to the following in the production of automo-
tive leather.
Raw stock High or very high quality cattlehide, preferably with no
grain defects, but exotic skins such as water buffalo or
ostrich can also be used.
Beamhouse The skin has to be opened up well and evenly during
liming.
Tannage • Chrome tannage
• The popularity of wet white is increasing due to less
shrinkage, which is important for dashboards and
door panels.
Retannage/ Attention needs to be paid to the following when
Dyeing selecting products:
• High tensile strength and tear resistance
• High lightfastness and heat resistance
• High resistance to migration
• High perspiration resistance
• Fine, even break after milling
• Selective increase in fullness in the loose areas of
leather
• Level dyeing
• High hiding power for grain defects
• Low formaldehyde content and limited VOC/FOG
values
The most important shades are black, grey and beige.
Fatliquoring Low-fogging products such as polymeric fatliquors with
• Neutral odour
• High resistance to high temperatures
• High tensile strength and tear resistance
• Low-VOC
Fatliquors should be selected which give soft but not
stretchy leather.
212
Leather goods
Finishing • High hiding power for grain defects, without impairing
the permeability to water vapour and handle.
• Exact shades – metamerism (computerized colour
matching)
• Low-VOC finishes
• Low formaldehyde content
• High wear resistance
• High resistance to ageing
If wet white and chrome-tanned leather are compared, it can be seen
that the advantages and disadvantages of these two processes mirror
each other.
Advantages
Wet white • Low shrinkage under hot, dry conditions
leather • Easier to recycle and dispose off, free of heavy
metals
Chrome-tanned • Low fogging, low VOC content, high migration
leather resistance
Upholstery leather
Unlike automotive upholstery leather, upholstery leather for furniture is
not subjected to extreme variations in climate. Nevertheless, it still needs
to fulfil similar standards of lightfastness as automotive leather, because it
tends to be exposed to strong sunlight at irregular intervals. Upholstery
leather also has to be hard-wearing and easy to maintain, and it is requi-
red to have a warm, soft handle.
Corrected-grain leather such as nubuck and suede can be used for
upholstery as well as smooth, full-grain leather.
213
Leather goods
Attention needs to be paid to the following in the production of uphol-
stery leather.
Raw stock Cattlehide or water buffalo of high or very high quality,
preferably with no grain defects.
Beamhouse • The hide has to be opened up well during liming.
Tannages • Chrome tannage
• Vegetable tannage
• Wet white tannage
Retannage/ Attention needs to be paid to the following when
Dyeing selecting products:
• High lightfastness and heat resistance
• High tensile strength and tear resistance
• High perspiration resistance
• Selective increase in fullness in the loose areas of hide
• Even break after milling
• Level shades
• High hiding power for grain defects
Leather can be dyed to all colours, from classical sha-
des to very intense, brilliant shades.
Fatliquoring • Neutral odour
• High tensile strength and tear resistance
• High lightfastness and heat resistance
• Specific types of handle are required
• Uniform softness
Finishing • High hiding power for grain defects, without impairing
handle, visual appearance and permeability to water
vapour.
• Resistant to cleaning
• Hard wearing
214
Leather goods
Garment leather
A wide selection of raw stock with large differences in the structure of
the skin and hide, fat content, etc., are used for garment leather. This
diversity implies that processes have to be adapted to the particular type
of raw hide in order to gain the best results. The methods employed in
the processing of garment leather are much more varied than those used
in the manufacture of other types of leather. Goatskin and pigskin are
mainly used for suede garment because of the structure of the skin, but
most sheepskin is full-grain.
Garment leather has to be soft and lightweight, with a pleasant handle
and reasonably weatherproof.
The following principles need to be observed in the production of gar-
ment leather.
Raw stock Cattlehide, calfskin, sheepskin, pigskin, goatskin and
skins of various game animals such as deerskin.
Beamhouse • The skin has to be opened up well during liming.
• Greasy skins need to be degreased well.
Tannage Chrome tanning is more appropriate than other tanning
methods due to the required softness of the leather.
For that reason combinations with chrome and glutaral-
dehyde can also be found quite often.
Retannage Attention needs to be paid to the following factors when
selecting syntans and polymers:
• High lightfastness
• Neutral odour
Dyeing Leather can be dyed to all colours, from classical sha-
des to very intense, brilliant shades.
• High lightfastness
• High migration resistance and perspiration resistance
215
Leather goods
Fatliquoring / • Neutral odour
water repellents • Extremely soft leather
• High bulk
• Pleasant handle
• High water resistance and perspiration resistance
• Water-resistant treatment may be applied
Finishing • Leathers range from being left unfinished to being
given a fairly thick coat of finish.
• Stretchy leather
• Pleasant handle and optical appearance
A selection of specifications for different types of leather can be found in
the chapter entitled “Test methods”.
216
Fur
Fur
The fur industry is closely related to the leather industry. The main diffe-
rence is that the fur dresser or dyer must see to it that the hair remains
firmly anchored in the leather, and all his processing operations are car-
ried out in such a manner that the hair is not damaged in any way.
The main processes in the production of fur are divided in:
• Fur dressing covers all operations necessary to convert the putre-
factive raw skin into a durable material, from soaking
up to tanning and fatliquoring.
• Fur dyeing includes all operations that are modifying or improving
the appearance of the hair and leather.
• Nappalan = flesh side finish. Finishing operations to improve look
and serviceability of the flesh side.
For the production of fur, the skins of more than 100 different types of
animals are used. According to the economical significance it is custo-
mary in the fur trade to divide furs into two groups:
• Furs derived from lamb, sheep and goat.
• All other furs.
Fur skin, general
Morphologically, there is no difference between skins and furs of animals
that are processed to leather and those that are used for fur skins. A
characteristic feature of many types of fur skins is, however, the great
extension and thickness of the hair follicles. The hair of the many different
types of fur skins varies widely in its form and structure, and it is specific
to the species.
There are three different types of hair:
• Guard-hair long, coarse, smooth, straight, relatively few in number
• Top-hair somewhat shorter than the guard-hair; straight, thicke-
ned below the hair tip
• Under-hair, fine, usually crimped; far more numerous than the
under-wool other types of hair; lamb and sheepskins have this
or fur-hair type of hair only.
217
Fur
Hair consists of the protein keratin. Like the protein of the skin, collagen,
it is based on amino acids. In contrast to collagen, however, keratin
contains no hydroxyproline, but sulfur-containing amino acids, which
cross-link the polypeptide chains of the keratin and impart stability.
Furthermore the proportion of acid amino acids contained is far larger in
keratin than in collagen. For this reason, the isoelectric point (I.P.), which
is important for dyeing, lies at different pH values for the two fibre pro-
teins (untreated collagen I.P. approx. 7, keratin I.P. approx. 5.5). Apart
from this the I.P. of collagen is shifted by a tannage, while the I.P. of kera-
tin remains practically unchanged, except when a treatment with aldehy-
des is carried out. These differences in the chemical composition and
morphology of hair and skin are the reason for the varying behaviour of
the two proteins and make the dyeing of fur skins an art that requires
much skill and experience.
Fur dressing
It is customary to process fur skins in paddles in long aqueous floats.
Especially for lamb and sheepskins short-liquor systems in drums were
developed for economical and ecological reasons.
In all wet processing operations the term "liquor ratio" means the rela-
tionship between the volume of the liquor and the mass of fur. The
amount of chemicals used is usually indicated in grams or millilitres of
substance per litre of liquor (g/l or ml/l), or in some cases in percentage
of the fur weight.
BASF products for fur dressing
1. Soaking
Bascal S Mixture of aliphatic dicarboxylic acids; for acidic post-
soaking. It notably facilitates de-fleshing, also on very
dry raw merchandise.
Cortymol BAC Bactericide based on an aqueous solution of N-dime-
thyl-dithio-carbamate, in order to avoid damage caused
by bacteria.
Eusapon S Ethoxylated synthetic alcohol, nonionic. Good wetting
properties, dissolves impurities and emulsifies greases.
218
Fur
Eusapon W Mixture of organic products, notably accelerates soa-
king, aids the penetration of water and loosens the
fibre structure.
2. Washing
Eusapon LPK-E Alkylsulfates and alkyl-ether-sulfates. Product generally
applicable for washing all types of raw or finished skins
for leather, with or without added soda.
Eusapon P Sulfated fatty alcohols, for washing wool, especially for
dirty raw hides with fat; good biodegradability.
3. Bleaching
Blankit IN, Special stabilised whiteners based on sodium
Blankit AN dithionite.
Blankit AN contains an optical brightening agent and is
used for lightening natural white wool, improving the
white effect, as well as for removing dyes.
4. Pickle
Concentrated Provides especially soft and stretchy hides together
formic acid with Bascal S.
Bascal S Pickling acid with buffering and masking effect, hydro-
reactant. Also especially adequate for thin hides or
those with a sensitive grain. In conjunction with other
organic acids, mainly formic acid, it provides particu-
larly soft and extendable hides.
5. Bating
Preparation based on bacterial enzymes, used for loo-
Basozym 1000
sening the skin’s structure.
219
Fur
Basozym CS 10 Enzymatic preparation based on organic enzymes,
used in acidic medium in order to loosen the skin’s
structure. Improves extensibility and softness, while
compensating the differences between the different
previous treatments.
6. Tanning and retanning
Basyntan D Synthetic replacement tanning agent based on a
liquid condensation product of aromatic sulfonic acids meant
to increase plenitude while conserving the hide’s softn-
ess. It is characterized by its excellent dyeability.
Basyntan DLE White tanning agent and retanning agent based on a
condensation product of aromatic sulfonic acids. Very
good plenitude effect, good softness and light fastn-
ess, excellent dyeability.
Basyntan E Chrome/aluminium syntan used as a retanning agent,
excellent buffing and dyeing properties.
Basyntan FC Acid tanning auxiliary. Reduces the risk of dying the
suede when the wool is dyed. Used in mordanting with
dichromate for black dying with Ursol dyes and a vio-
let-blue colour is obtained on the leather side.
Alkaline chrome sulfate, approx. 25 % Cr2O3,
Chromitan B
basicity 33 – 35 %.
Chromitan FM Chrome sulfate with light masking effect.
Approx. 24 % Cr2O3, basicity 40 %.
Implenal AP, Complexing agents based on organic dicarboxylic
Implenal DC acids. Improve plenitude, especially for lamb- and
liquid sheep skins.
Lutan BN Very basic aluminium complex salt with a high fixing
power. Provides more plenitude and better buffing pro-
perties, making it especially apt for suede. Approxima-
tely 16 % Al2O3, basicity approximately 50 %.
Lutan CRN Aluminium and chrome complex; approximately 14.5 %
Al2O3, approximately 3.5 % Cr2O3, basicity approxima-
tely 20 %. For tanning furskin with a light coloured flesh
side, does not make the wool green.
220
Fur
Lutan FN Basic salt from an aluminium complex, approximately
17 % Al2O3, basicity approximately 20 %. For white
finishing of all types of furskin; provides good softness
and extensibility.
Neutrigan Neutral reacting buffering mixture of organic and inor-
ganic complexing agents for soft de-acidification of
furskins that have been tanned with mineral tanning
agents.
Relugan GT 50/ 50 or 24 % glutaraldehyde solution. Used alone or in
Relugan GT 24 combination tannages of very soft furskins. Provide
tanning that stands up well to washing (for instance,
for lambskin used in hospitals); they dye wool and
leather slightly yellow.
Relugan GX Aliphatic aldehyde in an aqueous solution, with very
little odour. Adequate for furskins with white wool.
Relugan RF Polymeric anionic tanning agent. Not acid sensitive.
Combinable with chrome tanning in order to improve
plenitude. Excellent fastness with respect to light and
heat.
Tamol NA Synthetic neutralization agent with excellent buffering
effect, for dyeing scarcely lightened furskin suede with
uniform shine using Luganil/Lurazol dyes.
7. Fatliquoring/water repellent treatment
Lipoderm Anionic fatliquoring agent based on ester sulfite.
Liquor A1 Very good stability with respect to chrome and
electrolytes. Provides very soft and flexible furskins.
Anionic fatliquor based on lecithin for controlling feel
Lipoderm
Liquor LA properties.
Lipoderm Anionic sulfite fatliquoring agent with a natural base,
Liquor PN does not yellow and stands up well to light. Good resi-
stance to salts, acids, and mineral tanning agents. For
all types of furskins and finishes.
Lipoderm Combination of synthetic fatliquoring agents with
Liquor PSE special emulsifiers. Anionic, good resistance to electro-
lytes, elevated fixing capacity, low extractability with
organic solvents.
221
Fur
Lipoderm Natural sulfite oil with a lanolin base. Improves feel
Liquor WF and increases shine in furskin suede, together with
Lipoderm Liquor PSE.
Lipamin Cationic fatliquors with synthetic or natural base and
Liquor SO, good resistance to the electrolytes in the tanning bath.
Lipamin Adequate for regreasing dyed leather.
Liquor NO
Immergan A Oil tanning agent with an aliphatic sulfo-chloride base,
which provides good softness and resistance to alka-
lis, as well as excellent fastness with respect to light.
Improves grease distribution and fixing.
Densodrin EN Water repellent that stands up well to light, with fat
content.
Densodrin OF Aqueous emulsion of special polysiloxanes. Used as a
top greasing agent for furskin suede; notably improves
shine and feel.
Densodrin SI Aqueous emulsion of special polysiloxanes. When
applied by itself it provides extremely light and soft fur-
skins. Improves shine and feel.
Fur dyeing
Many types of fur skins, particularly the more valuable furs, are further
processed in the undyed state. Yet the proportion of fur skins that are
dyed has increased markedly in recent years due to the increasing
demand for sheep skin articles for decorations, automotive seat covers
and clothing purposes. Cheaper kinds of fur, such as lamb, sheep, kid
and rabbit can be made to look like valuable furs, e. g. seal, beaver or
chinchilla by means of a dyeing process and mechanical treatment.
These cheaper furs are also printed to produce imitations of leopard,
ocelot and lynx. Special effects can be achieved by just dyeing the tips
of the hair.
222
Fur
BASF products for fur dyeing
1. Ursol Dyes
Oxidation colours based on oxyamines and diamines, used after mor-
danting for dyeing all types of furskins. Good or very good lightfastness
of full shades, less pale shades.
Ursol EG Developing dye with a weak dyeing power, improves
fastness with respect to dyeing.
Ursol ER Developer for blue and red wine shades.
Ursol D Important starting dye for grey-brown and black tones
of all shades.
Ursol NZ For covered grey-brown tones.
Ursol P Base Lively grey-brown colouring with reddish shade.
Ursol 3GA Dye for shading in large quantities with a light yellowish
shade.
Ursol Grey BC For grey tones, together with Ursol NZ also for grey-
brown shades, as well as together with Ursol Fast
Black for black shades.
Ursol Fast Black For black dyeing with a bluish shade; lightfast and fast
to ironing.
2. Eukesolar Dyes
Metal complex dyes that provide shades on lambskins and sheepskins,
with excellent fastness with respect to light and ironing. A carrier is requi-
red for dark and medium tones.
Eukesolar Yellow GL
Eukesolar Orange RL
Eukesolar Red GL
Eukesolar Black RL
223
Fur
3. Lurazol Fur E Dyes
Anionic dyes especially selected for dyeing fur skins because of the
following properties:
• good exhaustion at 60 – 65 °C
• good combinability at this temperature
• only light staining of the leather
• similar fastness properties.
Lurazol Fur Lemon E
Lurazol Fur Yellow E
Lurazol Fur Blue E
Lurazol Fur Red E
Lurazol Fur Orange E
Lurazol Fur Black E
By combining these dyes a wide variety of shades can be obtained.
4. Lurazol Fur D Dyes
Special selected dyestuff-dispersions for dyeing the wool of fur with the
following properties:
• can be removed from the hair tips with Decrolin or Rongalit C
= snow top effect
• excellent dye uptake even at low temperature (45 °C)
• brilliant shades
• good mixing capability
Lurazol Fur Yellow D
Lurazol Fur Orange D
Lurazol Fur Blue D
Lurazol Fur Black D
Lurazol Fur Brown D
Lurazol Fur Green D
Lurazol Fur Red D
224
Fur
5. Luganil/Lurazol Dyes
These dyestuffs are used for dyeing the leather side of hides used for fur-
skin suede. For a description of these dyes see chapter “drum dyeing”.
Generally all Luganil and Lurazol dyes can be used for this purpose. The
following is a list of dyes that do not colour the wool in the dyeing bath,
or do so only slightly.
Luganil Yellow G Lurazol Beige L
Luganil Orange GGC Lurazol Brown MGR
Luganil Orange NR Lurazol Brown P
Luganil Light Brown NG Lurazol Red BN
Luganil Brown GOL Lurazol Brilliant Blue SBN
Luganil Brown NGB Lurazol Green EG
Luganil Brown MFR Lurazol Black MST
Luganil Brown NGT
Luganil Olive Brown N
Luganil Brown RL
Luganil Brown NT
Luganil Brown NR
Luganil Red Brown NB
Luganil Red NG
Luganil Bordo B
Luganil Blue NGR
Luganil Blue N
Luganil Dark Blue NB
Luganil Dark Green N
Luganil Grey GC
Luganil Black CN
Luganil Black NT
225
Fur
6. Dyeing auxiliaries
Amollan Lustre Special oil-mixture to improve the tone in dyeing and
VN equality as well as the brilliance of suede
Bastamol DRN Cationic fixing agent for improving fastness with res-
pect to washing and perspiration.
Densotan A Polymeric auxiliary with dispersing properties and
excellent lightfastness and heat resistance.
Eusapon A Nonionic ethoxylation product with a weak residual
concentrate cationic charge. Versatile surfactant with good levelling
properties, especially for dyeing with Lurazol Fur E
Dyes.
Lutensol ON 30 Nonionic ethoxlated fatty alcohol; carrier that greatly
intensifies the tone in dyeings with Eukesolar dyes.
The leather side is dyed with less intensity.
Lipoderm N Mixture of surfactants with a greasing and colour
equalising effect, improves furskin suede through-
dyeing.
Siligen MSI Primary emulsion of a polysiloxane for improving shine
during ironing.
Tamol GA Anionic levelling agent that stands up well to light, for
dyeing furskin suede to medium to dark shades using
Luganil/Lurazol dyes.
Tamol M Mixture of neutral salts from aromatic sulfonic acids.
Lightens the leather side in dyeings with Lurazol Fur E
dyes.
Tamol NNOL Anionic levelling agent for light furskin suede dyeing of
lambskin and suckling lambskin using Luganil/
Lurazol dyes. Solid with respect to light.
Tamol R Auxiliary for through-dyeing, with a slightly cationic
charge.
Nappalan – flesh side finishing
Flesh side finishing improves appearance, handle and serviceability of the
leather side of fur.
All finishing products of the BASF range may be used.
226
Test methods, leather testing
Leather testing methods
Please take into consideration that testmethods and specifications are
under continuous revision. A list of addresses at the end of this chapter
provides information where the up to date versions of the official test
methods are available. Further more many leather manufacturers have
developed their own test methods and specifications.
IUC/IUP-methods
The official methods of the International Leather Chemists’ Societies for
chemical leather analysis are denoted by the letters IUC and that for the
physical testing of leather by the letters IUP. Most of them have been
adopted as official methods.
The letters DIN denote the official leather test methods of the German
Standard Committee. Most of them have been drawn up in conformance
with the IUC and IUP methods.
Methods of chemical leather analysis
IUC/1 General remarks and presentation of analytical results
= factually corresponding with DIN 53300/part 2
IUC/2 Sampling (as in IUP/2)
= factually corresponding with DIN 53302/part 2
IUC/3 Preparing the test material by disintegration
= factually corresponding with DIN EN ISO 4044
IUC/4 Determination of substances extractable with dichloromethane
= factually corresponding with DIN EN ISO 4048
IUC/5 Determination of the water content of leather
= factually corresponding with DIN 53304
IUC/6 Determination of organic and inorganic substances in leather
removable by washing (loss by washing)
= factually corresponding with DIN 53307
IUC/7 Determination of ash and water-insoluble mineral substances
= factually corresponding with DIN EN ISO 4047
227
Test methods, leather testing
IUC/8 Determination of chromium content
= factually corresponding with DIN 53309
IUC/9 Determination of water soluble magnesium salts in leather
(epsom salt)
= factually corresponding with DIN EN ISO 5399
IUC/10 Determination of nitrogen, ammonium and skin substance
= factually corresponding with DIN 53308
IUC/11 Determination of pH and difference value of aqueous leather
extract
= factually corresponding with DIN EN ISO 4045
IUC/13 Determination of zirconium
= no corresponding DIN test method available
IUC/15 Determination of phosphorus
= no corresponding DIN test method available
IUC/16 Determination of aluminium
= no corresponding DIN test method available
IUC/17 Determination of hydroxyproline
= no corresponding DIN test method available
DIN standards not within the IUC range
DIN 53314 Determination of chromium (VI) compounds in leather
DIN 53315 Determination of formaldehyde in leather
The following methods are in the course of preparation and have not yet
been adopted as official methods:
a. Determination of iron in leather
b. Determination of free fatty acids in leather
d. Determination of extractable fat (chamois leather)
e. Determination of sulfur in leather
228
Test methods, leather testing
f. Determination of glutaraldehyde in leather
g. Determination of pentachlorophenol (PCP) in leather
Methods of physical leather testing
IUP /1 General remarks
IUP/2 Sampling
= factually corresponding with DIN 53302/part 1
IUP/3 Conditioning in standard atmosphere
(65 ± 2 % RH and 20 ± 2 °C; DIN 50 % RH, 23 ± 2 °C)
= factually corresponding with DIN 50014-2
IUP/4 Measurement of thickness
= factually corresponding with DIN 53326
IUP/5 Measurement of density
= factually corresponding with DIN 53327
IUP/6 Measurement of tensile strength, elongation at break and maxi-
mum force
= factually corresponding with DIN 53328
IUP/7 Measurement of absorption of water (Kubelka)
= factually corresponding with DIN 53330
IUP/8 Measurement of tearing load
= factually corresponding with DIN 53329
IUP/9 Measurement of distension and strength of grain by the ball
burst test (Lastometer)
= factually corresponding with DIN 53325
IUP/10 Dynamic waterproofness test (Penetrometer)
= factually corresponding with DIN 53338/part 1
IUP/11 Dynamic waterproofness test for boot and shoe sole leather
= factually corresponding with DIN 53338/part 2
IUP/12 Measurement of resistance to grain cracking
= factually corresponding with DIN 53324
229
Test methods, leather testing
IUP/13 Measurement of two-dimensional extension (Tensometer)
= factually corresponding with DIN 53323
IUP/14 Measurement of the waterproofness of gloving leathers
= no corresponding DIN test method available
IUP/15 Measurement of water vapour permeability
= factually corresponding with DIN 53333
IUP/16 Measurement of shrinkage temperature
= factually corresponding with DIN 53336
IUP/17 Measurement of resistance of air-dried insole leather to heat,
particularly during direct vulcanization
= no corresponding DIN test method available
IUP/18 Determination of the resistance of air-dried lining leather to
heat, particularly during direct vulcanization
= no corresponding DIN test method available
IUP/19 Determination of the resistance of dry upper leather to heat,
particularly in direct vulcanization and in moulding on soles
during shoe production
= no corresponding DIN test method available
IUP/20 Determination of the flexing endurance of light leathers and
their surface finishes (dry and wet) in flexometer
= factually corresponding with DIN 53351
IUP/21 Measurement of set in lasting with the dome plasticity appara-
tus (Plastometer)
= no corresponding DIN test method available
IUP/22 The assessment of surface damage by use of the viewing box
= no corresponding DIN test method available
IUP/23 Measurement of damage caused by scuff
= no corresponding DIN test method available
IUP/24 Measurement of surface shrinkage by immersion in hot water
IUP/26 Measurement of abrasion resistance of sole leather
IUP/28 Measurement of resistance to bending of heavy leather
230
Test methods, leather testing
IUP/29 Determination of cold crack resistance of finishes
= factually corresponding with DIN EN ISO 13333
IUP/30 Determination of water vapour absorption and desorption in
relation to dimensional changes in the leather
IUP/32 Measurement of surface area (provisional draft)
= factually corresponding with ISO 11646
DIN standards not within the IUP range:
DIN 53331 Determination of stitch tear strength.
DIN 53332 Determination of water vapour absorption.
DIN 53340 Determination of flexing endurance of low flexibility
leathers.
DIN 53344 Determination of resistance for hydrolysis of finished
and unfinished leathers.
DIN 75200 Determination of fire resistance.
DIN 75201 Determination of fogging characteristics of trim
materials in motor vehicles.
Method A: determination with 60° reflectometer.
Method B: gravimetric determination.
DIN 75202 Determination of light fastness of trim materials in
motor vehicles using the Xenon arc light.
DIN EN 344-1 Protective shoes.
DIN EN 374-1 Protective gloves.
DIN EN ISO 105B-02 Colour fastness to artificial light.
IUF methods see chapter “Testing of leather dyes and leather
dyeings”
231
Test methods, leather testing
ALCA analytical methods compared to ASTM methods (1991)
ALCA = American Leather Chemists Association
ASTM = American Society for Testing and Materials
ALCA No. Methods ASTM No.
A1 Analysis of Vegetable Tanning Materials – D 4899
General
A 10 Preparations of Solution of Liquid Extracts D 4901
A 11 Prep. of Solution of Solid, D 4905
Pasty and Powdered Extracts
A 12 Cooling of Analytical Solutions D 4905
A 13 Evaporation and Drying of Analytical Solutions D 4902
A 20 Total Solids and Water D 4903
A 50 Lignosulfonates (Sulfite Cellulose) D 4900
B2 Preparation of Sample for Analysis D 2813
B3 Moisture D 3790
B4 Solvent Extract D 3495
B5 Nitrogen Content and Hide Substance (Kjeldahl) D 2868
B8 Water Soluble Material D 2876
B 11 Insoluble Ash D 2875
B 15 Total Ash D 2617
B 20 pH of Leather D 2810
C1 Chromium in Chrome Tanning Liquors D 3898
C5 Acidity of Chrome Tanning Liquors D 3813
C 10 Basicity of Chrome Liquors D 3897
D1 Preparations of Samples for Chemical Tests D 2813
D 10 Standard test method for determination of D 6656
chromic oxide in wet-blue
(perchloric acid oxidation)
D 20 Sulfates (Total, Neutral and Combined Acid) D 4655
D 21 Chlorides D 4653
D 30 Sulfate Basicity D 4654
D 35 Acidity (pH value) D 2810
E1 Conditioning Leather for Physical Testing D 1610
E2 Area D 2346
E3 Thickness of Units D 1814
E4 Thickness of Specimens D 1813
E5 Width D 1516
E 10 Tongue Tear Strength D 4704
E 11 Buckle Tear Strength D 4831
E 12 Stitch Tear Strength, Single Hole D 4786
232
Test methods, leather testing
ALCA No. Methods ASTM No.
E 13 Stitch Tear Strength, Double Hole D 4705
E 14 Bursting Strength, BAN D 2207
E 15 Tensile Strength D 2209
E 16 Breaking Strength D 2208
E 17 Elongation D 2211
E 30 Water Absorption (Static) D 1815
E 32 Permeability to Water Vapour D 5052
E 42 Resistance to Cracking at Low Temperature D 1912
E 45 Compressibility of Leather D 2213
E 46 Crocking D 5053
E 52 Corrosion Produced by Leather in Contact D 1611
with Metal
E 53 Colourfastness/Transfer of Color in the D 2096
Washing of Leather
E 54 Flex Testing of Finish on Upholstery Leather D 2097
E 55 Dynamic Water Resistance of Shoe Upper D 2098
Leather by Dow Corning Leather Tester
E 56 Dynamic Water Resistance of Shoe Upper D 2099
Leather by the Maeser Water Penetration Tester
E 57 Resistance to Wetting of Garment Type Leather D 1913
(Spray Test)
E 58 Grain Crack and Extension of Leather by the D 2210
Mullen Test
E 59 Slit Tear Resistance of Leather D 2212
E 60 Thermal Conductivity of Leather with the D 2214
Cenco-Fitch-App.
E 61 Resistance of Chrome-Tanned White Shoe D 2322
Upper Leather to Artificial Perspiration
E 62 Apparent Density of Leather D 2346
E 63 Relative Stiffness of Leather by Means of D 2214
Torsional Wire Apparatus
E 64 Break Pattern of Leather (Break Scale) Oils, D 2941
Greases and their Products
H 5 Sulfonated and Sulfated Oils – General D 500
H 40 Moisture D 500
H 41 Moisture & Volatile Matter D 500
H 42 Organically Comb. Sulfuric Anhydride D 500
Titration Test (sulfat.)
H 43 Comb. Sulfuric Anhydride Extraction Test D 500
(for sulfated Oils)
233
Test methods, leather testing
ALCA No. Methods ASTM No.
H 44 Sulfuric Anhydride Ash-Gravimetric Test D 500
(true sulfonated)
H 46 Total Active Ingredients D 500
H 47 Unsaponifiable Non-Volatile Matter D 500
H 48 Inorganic Salts D 500
H 49 Total Alkalinity and Total Ammonia D 500
H 50 Acidity as Free Fatty Acids or Acid Number in D 500
Absence of Ammonia or Triethanolamine Soaps
H 51 Acidity as Free Fatty Acids or Acid Number in D 500
Presence of Dark Coloured Oils but in Absence
of Ammonia or Triethanolamine Soaps
H 52 Acidity as Free Fatty Acids or Acid Number in D 500
Presence of Ammonia or Triethanolamine Soaps
Standard test method for pH of wet blue D 6657
Standard test method for volatile matter D 6658
(moisture) in wet blue by oven drying
Sampling
J 1 Sampling Light Leather for Physical Tests D 2813
J 2 Sampling Heavy Leather for Physical Tests D 2813
J 15 Sampling of Vegetable Tanned Leather D 2813
J 25 Sampling of Mineral Tanned Leather D 2813
Standard practice for sampling and preparation D 6659
of wet blue for physical and chemical tests
Leather Finishes
K1 Total Solids and Ash in Leather Finish D 4906
K5 Nitrocellulose in Finish on Leather D 4906
K 11 Tackiness of Finish on Leather D 4908
Preparation of samples for analysis
The leather specimen for the chemical analysis is passed through a cutter
mill, and the pulverized leather is called ”leather powder” or ground leat-
her.
Suitable for this purpose are all types of mills fitted with a 4 mm screen
and driven at a speed of 700 –1000 r.p.m.
234
Test methods, leather testing
Sampling according to IUC/2 and IUP/2
1. Sampling location for skins, whole hides and sides
1. Probennahme bei Fellen, ganzen Häuten und Hälften
1. Probennahme bei Fellen, ganzen Häuten und Hälften
C
backbone
AC = 2 AB
G J
EF
E F D 2
JK = EF
H
A HK
K
2
AB
HK
2
B
50 mm
AF=
AD
2
2. Probenahmen bei Hälsen
2. Sampling location for shoulders bei Hälsen
2. Probenahmen
AB
2 chemical
tests
physical
tests
50 mm
T
AB
2
A B
DC
2 D C
20 mm
R P S
RS RS
2 2
235
Test methods, leather testing
3. Sampling location for bends bei Croupons (Kernstücken)
3. Probehahme
50 mm
C
BC
2
G J
EF
2
E F L
A JK = EF
K
HK
BC 2
2
HK
2
B
AD
2
4. Sampling location for bellies (flanks)
shoulder
P
R
S
S = ca. 10 cm
S
20 x 10 cm
belly S
a b
U
a. sampling location, if no physical tests are required
b. sampling location, if physical tests are required
236
Test methods, leather testing
Calculation and evaluation of test results
Determination of water content (IUC/5, DIN 53304)
G1 – G2
Water content in % = x 100
G1
G1 = weight of sample before drying
G2 = weight of sample after drying
Determination of substances extractable with dichloromethane
(IUC/4, DIN 53304)
E. g. fats and other soluble substances
g extract x 100
Extractable substances in % =
g weight of sample
Determination of substances removable by washing
(IUC/6, DIN 53307)
g solids
a. Total loss by washing in % = x 100
g weight of sample
g sulfated residue on ignition
b. Sulfate ash removable x 100
=
by washing in % g weight of sample
c. Organic substances removable by washing in % = difference between
total loss by washing and sulfated ash removable by washing.
Determination of ash (IUC/7, DIN EN ISO 4047)
g total sulfated ash
a. Total ash in % = x 100
g weight of sample
b. water-insoluble ash in % (determined by calculation) = % total sulfated
ash minus % sulfated ash removable by washing.
237
Test methods, leather testing
Determination of chrome (IUC/8, DIN 53309)
a. Iodometric determination of chrome
1 ml 0.1 N Na-thiosulfate solution 1.734 mg Cr
1 ml 0.1 N Na-thiosulfate solution 2.534 mg Cr2O3
b. Titration with iron (II) sulfate solution
1 ml 0.1 N iron (II) sulfate solution 1.734 mg Cr
2.534 mg Cr2O3
1 ml 0.1 N iron (II) sulfate solution
Determination of water-soluble magnesium salts
(IUC/9, DIN ISO 5399)
% MgSO4 x 7H2O = ml 0.01 m Komplexon (III) solution x 0.2465
(Epsom salt) g weight of sample
Determination of total nitrogen content, content of ammonium
salts, calculation of skin substance (IUC/10, DIN 53308)
a. % total nitrogen
1 ml 0.5 N H2 SO4 7 mg nitrogen
b. Ammonium nitrogen
1 ml 0.5 N H2 SO4 1.4 mg nitrogen
Ammonium sulfate content in mg (NH4)2SO4 = mg N x 4.71
Difference value
The difference value is the difference between the pH of a solution and
that of its 1 : 10 dilution.
Fixed tannin (vegetable)
% fixed tannin = 100 minus the sum of moisture, ash, fat, organic loss by
washing and skin substance.
238
Test methods, leather testing
Degree of tannage (vegetable)
The degree of tannage indicates the number of parts of tannin fixed by
100 parts of skin substance.
% fixed tannin
Degree of tannage = x 100
% skin substance
Yield value (analytical)
The yield value indicates the amount of vegetable tanned leather contai-
ning 14 % of water obtained from 100 g skin substance.
10 000
Yield value =
% skin substance
Apparent density
mass (weight) of leather in g
Apparent density in g/cm3 =
volume of leather in cm3
d2 (in cm) x 3.14 x average thickness (in cm)
Volume of leather =
4
Measurement of tensile strength, elongation at break, breaking
load (IUC/6, DIN 53328)
breaking load N
Tensile strength in N/mm2 =
thickness in mm x width in mm
Breaking load N = highest load reached at break
Elongation at = mm length at break – mm initial length x 100
break in % mm initial length
Measurement of tearing load (split tear strength) (IUC/8, DIN 53329)
Split tear force in N = mean value of tearing load
Tearing load in N/mm = force applied to tear specimen
Stitch tear strength (according to DIN 53331) = force in N
239
Test methods, leather testing
Water absorption after Kubelka (static) (IUC/7, DIN 53330)
volume of water absorbed in ml
Water absorption in % by vol. =
volume of sample in cm3
weight of water absorbed in g
Water absorption in % by wt. =
mass weight of sample in g
Static water absorption (BASF method) - simple test
A piece of leather (ca. 10 x 10 cm is completely immersed in water for a
defined period (1 or 2 hours).
weight before storage
Static water absorption in % by wt. =
weight after storage
Stripe test (BASF method)
A stripe of leather (ca. 10 x 1 cm) is hung into water for 2 hours up to a
defined mark. The distance the water has risen at the surface and at the
edge is determined in mm.
Water absorption, water penetration in penetrometer (Dynamic)
(Bally penetrometer test IUP/10, DIN 53328)
The most suitable flexing amplitude depends on the thickness of the
leather, viz. 5 %, 7.5 %, 10 % or 15 %.
Penetration time is recorded in minutes.
Water absorp- = weight of sample after flexing – weight before flexing
tion in % weight of sample before flexing
Water transmitted in g = gain in weight of absorbent cloth
240
Test methods, leather testing
Measer test (ASTM D 2099)
Test specimens are flexed in a dilute solution of common salt . The num-
ber of flexes endured by the leather at the point at which the water pene-
trates are counted. The dynamic water absorption is often tested after
15000 to 20000 flexes or at the point of penetration.
Water vapour permeability (IUP/15, DIN 53333)
7640 x m
Water vapour permeability in mg/cm2 · h =
d2 x t
m = gain in weight in mg between two weighings
d = inner diameter in mm in bottle neck
t = time in minutes between two weighings
241
Test methods, leather testing
Quality requirements for the main types of leather
(General data)
Shoe upper leather
Box Box Cor- Glazed Water Water
calf side rected kid proof proof
grain (comb. (chrome
side tanned) tanned)
Sulfate ash % max. 2 % above the content of tanning oxide
Chromium oxide content % > 2.5 > 2.5 > 2.5 > 2.5 > 1.2 > 2.5
Fatty substances % 3–8 5 – 16 5 – 16 4–8 <16 8 – 15
Loss by washing % < 2.0 < 2.0 < 2.0 < 2.0 < 2.0 < 2.0
Degree of tannage – – – – > 30 –
pH (1 : 20) aqueous extract not below pH 3.5;
Tensile strength
N/mm2 20 20 > 20 > 20 > 25 > 25
Elongation at break % > 40 > 40 > 40 > 40 > 40 > 40
Elongation in %
at 2 N/mm2 14 14 < 14 < 14 < 16 < 14
Split tear force
N/mm > 40 > 40 > 25 > 25 > 50 > 50
Stitch tear strength N > 80 >100 > 80 > 80 >100 >120
Water penetration in
min (penetrometer) 60 > 20 > 20 > 20 >180 >120
Water absorption
after 60 min < 20 < 30 < 30 < 30 < 20 < 25
Water absorption –
Kubelka after 2 h < 60 < 60 < 60 < 60 < 30 < 30
after 24 h < 85 < 85 < 85 < 85 < 40 < 40
Grain distension
(Lastometer), mm 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0
242
Test methods, leather testing
Sole leather Lining leather
Vege- Suede Sole Sole Insole Insole, sock Vege- Combi- Chrome
table (cattle, leather leather leather lining (sheep),table nation tanned
tanned calf, goat, modern old pit combination tanned tanned
leather sheep) tannage tannage tanned
max. 2 % above the content of tanning oxide
– > 2.5 – – – < 0.8 – < 0.5 < 2.5
18 – 26 2– 6 < 3.5 < 2.0 < 4.0 < 4.0 4–8 5 – 11 5 – 11
< 6.0 – <14.0 < 6.0 <10.0 <10.0 < 6.0 < 3.0 < 3.0
> 50 – 60 – 95 60 – 95 60 – 95 > 50 >50 >40 –
at pH values below 4.0 difference value not above 0.7
> 25 > 20 > 25 > 25 > 20 > 10 > 15 15 20
> 40 > 40 < 30 < 35 < 35 < 40 < 70 <100 <100
– – – – – – – – –
> 40 – – – – – > 15 > 15 > 40
>100 > 80 >130 >130 >125 – > 40 > 40 > 40
> 20 – – – – – – – –
< 30 – – – – – – – –
<> 50 > 50 > 75 > 75 > 75
<>100 >100 >100
7.0 – – – – – – – –
243
Test methods, leather testing
Quality requirements for the main types of leather
(General data)
Upholstery and light leather Clothing leather
Upholst. Upholst. Upholst. Light Clothing Glove
leather, leather, leather, leather, leather, leather,
veget. comb. chrome veget. chrome chrome
tanned tanned tanned tanned tanned tanned
Sulfate ash % max. 2 % above the content of tanning oxide
Chromium oxide content % – > 0.8 > 2.5 – > 2.5 > 2.5
Fatty substances % 5 –11 5 –11 5 –11 3–8 <16 –18 10 –18
Loss by washing % < 7.0 < 7.0 – < 6.0 < 2 – 3 < 2.0
Degree of tannage >50 >30 – >50 – –
pH-Wert (1 : 20) aqueous extract not below pH 3.5;
Tensile strength
N/mm2 > 20 > 25 > 27.5 > 10 > 25 > 25
Elongation at break % < 50 < 50 < 75 < 50 < 60 < 50
Elongation in %
at 2 N/mm2 – – – – < 20 < 20
Split tear force N/mm > 40 > 40 > 50 > 10 > 35 > 35
Stitch tear strength N >100 >100 >110 – >100 >100
Water penetration in
min. (penetrometer) – – – – > 40 –
Water absorption
after 60 min. – – – – < 25 –
Water absorption –
Kubelka after 2 h – – – – – –
after 24 h – – – – – –
Grain distension
(Lastometer), mm – – – – – –
* for chamois leather pH 4.0 – 10.0; for raw skin and transparent leather
pH 4.0 – 8.0
244
Test methods, leather testing
Technical leather
Glove Hat sweat Oil Harness Harness Football ASA Raw Cha-
leather, band tanned leather, leather, leather, leather, hide a. mois
water- leather, leather veget. chrome chrome chrome transp. leather
repell. veget. tann. tanned tanned tanned tanned leather
may. 2 % above the content of tanning oxide
> 2.5 – – – > 2.5 > 2.5 > 4.0 – –
<23 4–12 <35 <25 <25 4–10 5–13 – <10
< 2.0 < 6.0 – < 7.0 – – – – –
– >50 – >30 – – – – –
at pH values below 4.0, difference value not above 0.7*
> 20 > 12 > 35 > 20 > 27.5 > 30 > 15 > 60 > 10
> 50 – < 90 < 50 < 75 < 70 < 70 < 35 < 50
> 20 – – – – – > 8 – –
> 35 > 15 – > 40 > 50 > 40 > 30 – > 15
>100 > 30 – >100 >110 >120 > 75 – > 35
>180 – – – – – – – –
< 251) – – – – – – – –
>3002)
– – – – – < 35 – –
>4003)
– – – – – < 70 – –
– – – – – – – – –
1) after 180 minutes;
2) after 2 minutes;
3) after 60 minutes
245
Test methods, leather testing
Provisional quality requirements for shoe upper leather
(laid down by the German leather industry and the General Association of
the German Shoe Industry)
Test/type of leather Quality requirements
dry wet
1. Flexing endurance (flexometer) According to
(IUP/20, DIN 53351) DIN 53351
Use DIN 53340 for testing leather is
low flexibility leather moistened
Patent leather 20 000 10 000
Other types of leather 50 000 10 000
2. Adhesion of finish
(IUF 470; N/cm width)
Cattle hide leather, full grain and 3.0 2.0
slightly corrected
Cattle hide leather, deeply buffed 5.0 3.0
Fashionable leather (with thin finish 2.0
coats, e. g. box calf, glazed kid, lamb
skin leather)
3. Rub fastness (VESLIC rub tester) Rub cycles Grey Scale
(DIN 53339)
Leather for street shoes
Test fabric dry, leather dry 50 minimum rating 4
Test fabric wet, leather dry 50
Leather for shoes without lining
Inside; test fabric dry 50 minimum rating 4
Inside; test fabric wet 50
Inside; test fabric wetted with 20
alkaline perspiration solution
Fashionable leather
Test fabric dry, leather dry 50 minimum rating 4
Test fabric wet, leather dry 20
Test fabric wetted with aqueous 20
solvent-free polish, leather dry
4. Fastness to hot plating minimum 80 °C
(IUF/458, DIN 53342) no damage
5. Distention of grain Dome height
(IUP/9, DIN 53325) minimum 7.0
246
Test methods, leather testing
Test/type of leather Quality requirements
6. Split tear force
(IUP/8, DIN 53329, method B)
Leather for lined shoes minimum 18 N
Leather for unlined shoes minimum 25 N
7. Substances extractable with
dichloromethane (IUC/4, DIN EN ISO 4048)
for one-component adhesive up to 9 %
for two-component adhesive up to 14 %
for special polyurethane adhesive above 14 %
for vulcanizing up to 8 %
for PVC mould-on up to 15 %
8. Water vapour permeability (IUP/15, DIN 53333)
After 20 000 flexes in flexometer
(DIN 53351) with finished leathers
1.0 mg/(cm2 x h)
Full grain leather
9. Water spotting test no spots
(IUF/420, DIN EN ISO 15700)
Tests as required
10. Tensile strength minimum 150 N
(IUP/6, DIN 53328)
11. Grain distention and elongation test for
special leathers, e. g. clogs
Lastometer test (IUP/9, DIN 53325) dome height minimum 9.0 mm
Elongation test (IUP/9, DIN 53328) without grain cracking min. 35 %
12. Waterproofness test Water penetr. Water absorpt.
(IUP/10, DIN 53338)
Waterproof leather min. 120 min max. 25 %
5 mg/cm2
13. Water vapour absorption min. 8h
(DIN EN 344)
14. Cold flexing endurance (DIN 53351)
at –10 °C min 30 000 flexes
15. Lightfastness (IUF/401 – daylight) min. rating 3
(DIN EN ISO 105 B-02) min. rating 3
16. Migration fastness (DIN 53343) max. rating 3
247
Test methods, leather testing
Test/type of leather Quality requirements
17. pH value of aqueous extract not below 3.5
(IUC/11, DIN EN ISO 4045)
18. Mineral substances removable not above 1.5
by washing (IUC/6, DIN 53307)
Provisional quality requirements for shoe lining leather
(laid down by the German Leather Associations)
Test/type of leather Quality requirements
aniline leather finished leather
1. Rub fastness test
(IUF/450, DIN 53339) Rub cycles
Leather dry 100 > rating 3 > rating 3
Leather dry 50 > rating 3 > rating 4
Leather wet 20 > rating 3 > rating 4
Leather dry wetted with
perspiration solution (pH 9) 20 > rating 2 – 3 > rating 2 – 3
Leather dry wetted with
gasoline
(boiling point 80 –110 °C) 20 no staining
2. Stripe test for water fastness
Testing after 2 h and 8 h no staining of diffusion zone
= rating above 3
3. Water vapour permeabilityminimum 1.0 mg/cm2 h
4. Elongation at break (DIN 53328)
(minimum leather thickness > 0.4 mm)
Skivers, unlaminated minimum 25 %
Skivers, laminated minimum 30 %
Other leathers minimum 30 %
5. Mineral substances removable by washing
(DIN 53307) not over 1,5 %
6. Substances extractable with dichloromethane
(DIN EN ISO 4048)
Lining leather maximum 10 %
Lamb woolskin lining maximum 8%
248
Test methods, leather testing
Test/type of leather Quality requirements
aniline leather finished leather
7. pH value (DIN EN ISO 4045) not below 3.5
8. Split tear strength (as required) only lining leather for reinforcement
(DIN 53329) minimum 15 N/mm
Provisional quality requirements for furniture leather
(laid down by German Leather Associations)
Test/type of leather Quality requirements
perspiration
dry wet solution
1. Rub fastness test
(DIN 53339 = rub cycles)
Rough leather 50 20 20
Grey Scale contrast maximum rating 3
Smooth leather 500 80 50
Grey Scale contrast maximum rating 4
2. Light fastness
(DIN EN ISO 105-B02)
Rough leather minimum rating 3
Smooth leather minimum rating 4
3. Flexing endurance
(DIN 53351) 20 000
4. Adhesion of finish coat
(IUF 470) 1.5 N/cm
5. Split tear force
(DIN 53329) 20 N/mm thickness
6. pH value, aqueous extract
(DIN EN ISO 4045) minimum 3.5
Tests not required but to be carried out if necessary:
migration fastness,
scratch resistance,
stability to UV light,
stability to amines.
249
Test methods, leather testing
For car upholstery leather, the individual companies of the automobile
industry have their own quality standards.
Provisional quality requirements for clothing leather
(laid down by the EC Leather Institutes, Specification Commission)
Test/type of leather Quality requirements
suede leather,
nubuck, nappa leather,
aniline nappa finished
1. Light fastness
(DIN EN ISO 105-B02)
IUF 402 – xenotest rating 3 rating 4
2. Rub fastness (IUF 450) Rub cycles
Felt dry 20 50
Felt wet 10 20
Felt wetted with perspiration
solution (pH 9) 10 20
3. Flexing endurance – > 50 000
(DIN 53351)
4. Adhesion of finish
(IUF 470) – > 2.0 N/10 mm
5. Split tear force
(IUP/8, DIN 53329) 15 N/mm 20 N/mm
Tests as required
12 N/mm2 12 N/mm2
Tensile strength (IUP/6, DIN 53328)
Washability (based on IUF 423) After washing, drying and light staking:
no change in leather handle; change in
leather shade > rating 3 on Grey Scale
(4 is recommended). Change in area
< ± 3% (BLMRA* < ± 5%).
Resistance to dry cleaning After dry cleaning/After dry cleaning/
refatliquoring: no refatliquoring: no
change in handle, peeling of finish;
shade > rating 3 – 4, changes as speci-
change in area fied for suede
< ± 3% (BLMRA and nubuck.
± 5%).
250
Test methods, leather testing
Test/type of leather Quality requirements
suede leather,
nubuck, nappa leather,
aniline nappa finished
Wettability (based on IUF 420) 10 minutes 15 minutes
pH value (IUC/11) minimum 3.5 minimum 3.5
(EMPA > 3.3;
diff. value < 0.70)
* BLMRA = British Leather Manufacturers Research Association
251
Test methods, leather testing
Testing of leather dyes and leather dyeings
IUF methods
The methods of the International Fastness Union for Leather Dyes and
Dyed Leather are denoted by the letters
I.U.F. = International Union Fastness.
The following countries are at present members of the International
Fastness Union:
Belgium, Czech Republic, Denmark, France, Germany, Great Britain,
Greece, India, Israel, Italy, Japan, Netherlands, Spain and Switzerland.
Numbering system of guidelines and test methods
(IUF 105)
Group 1 = includes Nos. 100 –199
Scope, principle, assessment; preparation of substrates
for producing dyeings.
Group 2 = includes Nos. 200 – 299
Testing the properties of dyes and finishing agents without
the aid of leather.
Group 3 = includes Nos. 300 – 399
Testing the properties of dyes and finishing agents by
application on leather.
Group 4 = includes Nos. 400 – 499
Testing the colour fastness of leather.
252
Test methods, leather testing
IUF test methods
IUF 105 = Numbering system of guidelines and test methods
IUF 120 = Principles of test procedures ( DIN EN ISO 105-A01*)
IUF 131 = Grey Scale for assessing the change in colour
( DIN EN ISO 105-A02*, visual; DIN EN ISO 105-A05*,
instrumental)
IUF 132 = Grey Scale for the determination of the colouring of the
accompanying material ( DIN EN ISO 105-A03*, visual;
DIN EN ISO 105-A04*, instrumental)
IUF 151 = Process for the preparation of standard chrome grain
leather (D)
IUF 201 = Solubility of leather dyes (D)
IUF 202 = Colour fastness of dye solutions to acids (D)
IUF 203 = Stability of dye solutions to acids (D)
IUF 204 = Stability of dye solutions to alkali (D)
IUF 205 = Stability of dye solutions to hard water (D)
IUF 401 = Colour fastness of leather to daylight
( DIN EN ISO 105-B01*)
IUF 402 = Colour fastness of leather to artificial light (xenon lamp)
( DIN EN ISO 105-B02*)
IUF 420 = Colour fastness of leather to water spotting
( DIN EN ISO 15700)
IUF 421 = Colour fastness of leather to water ( DIN EN ISO 11642)
DIN EN ISO 15703)
IUF 423 = Colour fastness of leather to washing (
IUF 426 = Colour fastness of leather to perspiration ( ISO 11641)
IUF 434 = Colour fastness of leather to dry cleaning
( DIN EN ISO 11643)
253
Test methods, leather testing
IUF 435 = Colour fastness of leather to washing in the washing machine
( DIN EN ISO 15702)
IUF 441 = Colour fastness of leather in respect of staining crude crepe
rubber (D)
IUF 442 = Colour fastness of leather in respect of staining plasticized
polyvinyl chloride ( DIN EN ISO 15701)
IUF 450 = Colour fastness of leather to rubbing ( DIN EN ISO 11640)
IUF 454 = Fastness to buffing of dyed leather (D)
IUF 458 = Colour fastness of leather to hot ironing (D)
IUF 470 = Determination of adhesion of finish to leather (ISO 11644)
Tests not within the IUF range
• Solubility of leather dyes – BASF Method
• Fogging test (DIN 75201)
• Lightfastness at high temperature (DIN 75202, DIN EN ISO 105-B06),
especially for automotive leather
* = equivalent textile standard
(D) = draft or VESLIC methods
254
Test methods, leather testing
Testing of leather dyes
Determination of dye class
a. precipitation reaction
b. behaviour in dissolving
Determination of pure dye content
a. determination of ash
b. spectrophotometer
Testing of homogeneity
a. blowing test
b. capillary method
Determination of solubility (BASF Method)
The solubility is tested in distilled water at 20 °C and 60 °C. The amount
of dye is determined that stays dissolved after dissolving by boiling and
cooling down to the temperatures specified above. The results are recor-
ded in g/l.
Solubility ratings:
5 = more than 40 g/l
4 = up to and including 40 g/l
3 = up to and including 30 g/l
2 = up to and including 20 g/l
1 = up to and including 10 g/l
Intermediate ratings, e. g., 3 – 4, may be given.
(For the technique of low temperature dyeing (below 40 °C), the dyes to
be used should be tested especially for this purpose.)
255
Test methods, leather testing
Testing of dye solutions
Strength of dye solution
Assessment without dyeing test on leather. This can be carried out with
the aid of:
a. colorimeter
b. filter paper.
Stability to acids (IUF 203)
The resistance of a dye solution to flocculation under the action of formic
acid and sulfuric acid.
Ratings:
5 = no flocculation with either one of the two acids
4 = no flocculation with formic acid; beginning flocculation with sulfuric
acid
3 = no flocculation with formic acid; flocculation with sulfuric acid
2 = beginning flocculation with formic acid
1 = distinct flocculation with both acids
Fastness to acids (IUF 202)
The resistance of the shade of dye solutions to dilute acids. For testing,
the dye solutions are poured on filter paper.
The assessment is made with the aid of the Grey Scale.
Ratings: from 5 = no change in shade
to 1 = strong change in shade
256
Test methods, leather testing
Fastness to alkali
The resistance of the colour of dye solutions to dilute alkalis. For testing,
the dye solutions are poured on filter paper.
The assessment is made with the aid of the Grey Scale.
Ratings: from 5 = no change in colour
to 1 = strong change in colour
Stability to hard water (IUF 205)
The behaviour of dyes in water of 20 and 40 German degrees of
hardness.
Water of the degree of hardness specified above is prepared by dissol-
ving the required amount of calcium chloride and magnesium sulfate in
distilled water.
The purpose of this test is mainly to find out whether a dye for brush or
spray staining has to be dissolved in condensation water.
Ratings:
5 = no flocculation with hard water
4 = no flocculation with water containing 200 mg CaO per litre, beginning
flocculation with water containing 400 mg CaO per litre
3 = no flocculation with water containing 200 mg CaO per litre, distinct
flocculation with water containing 400 mg CaO per litre
2 = beginning flocculation with water containing 200 mg CaO per litre
1 = distinct flocculation with water containing 200 mg CaO per litre
257
Test methods, leather testing
Testing of leather dyeings
Fastness to formaldehyde (IUF 424)
Determination of the change in shade of dyed leather under the action of
formaldehyde fumes.
The assessment is made with the aid of the Grey Scale.
Ratings: from 5 = no change
to 1 = strong change in shade.
Fastness to fatliquor
The bleeding in anionic fatliquor is assessed according to the behaviour
of chrome calf leather dyed with 1% of dye and subsequently fatliquored
with 2 % of Lipoderm Liquor PN and left in the wet state for two hours
under a load between two sheets of filter paper.
The staining of the filter paper is assessed with the aid of the Grey Scale.
Ratings: from 5 = no change
to 1 = strong staining.
Penetration
The dye penetration is tested on freshly tanned chrome calf leather (neu-
tralized and subsequently dyed) and on crusted chrome suede leather.
Assessment (leather cross-section)
5 = complete penetration
4 = 75 % penetration
3 = 50 % penetration
2 = 25 % penetration
1 = superficial colouring
258
Test methods, leather testing
Levelling power
Can be assessed only on several leathers or batches of leather. The
levelness of the dyeing over the entire leather surface and the colouring
or covering up of leather faults are assessed.
Fastness to water spotting (IUF 420)
Two drops of distilled water are dropped on the surface of the leather to
be tested. After one drop of water has evaporated at 20 °C, the change
in shade of the leather is determined with the aid of the Grey Scale. The
remainder of the water of the other drop of water is removed with filter
paper after 30 minutes, and any physical change is recorded.
Fastness to water (IUF 421, DIN EN ISO 11642)
Like the test for fastness to perspiration, but demineralized water is used
instead of the perspiration solution.
Fastness to washing (IUF 423, DIN EN ISO 15703)
This property is tested by washing leather with a solution of 5 g/l lauryl
sulfate in a neutral (alkali-free) bath and assessing the change in shade
and staining of accompanying textile fabric.
The leather specimens are attached to equal sized cuttings of accom-
panying fabric and washed in 100 ml of 0.5 % lauryl sulfate solution for 30
minutes at 30 °C in a "Wacker" drum.
The change in shade is assessed with the aid of the Grey Scale for
change in shade and the staining of the accompanying fabric is determi-
ned with the aid of the Grey Scale for bleeding.
Ratings: from 5 = no change in shade or staining
to 1 = strong change in shade or staining.
259
Test methods, leather testing
Fastness to perspiration (IUF 426)
Specified, undyed multifibre fabric (ISO 105-F 10 = cellulose acetate, cot-
ton, polyamide, polyester, acrylic and wool) or homogeneous fibre mate-
rial soaked in artificial perspiration solution and laid on the side of the lea-
ther cutting to be tested. The composite test specimen is placed under a
load of 4.5 kg (123 N/cm2 = 125 p/cm2) at 37 ± 2 °C for one hour in a
suitable apparatus (hydrotester or perspirometer) and is then dried freely
suspended under standard climatic conditions (20 °C and 65 % R.H.).
On finished leathers, the film is removed with abrasive paper (grit size
180) without damaging the grain surface to any extent.
Perspiration solution per litre:
5.0 g sodium chloride, NaCl;
5.0 g tris-(hydroxymethyl)-aminomethane, NH2C(CH2OH)3;
0.5 g urea, NH2CONH2;
0.5 g nitrilotriacetic acid, N(CH2COOH);
adjusted to pH 8.0 ± 0.1 with hydrochloric acid.
Report the numerical ratings for the colour change of each side of the
specimen and the numerical rating for the staining of each piece of the
specified accompanying fabric with the aid of the Grey Scale.
The ratings range from 5 = no staining or no colour change
to 1 = strong staining or strong colour change.
Fastness to solvents
Specimens of 1% dyeings (0.5 g) are placed for 24 hours in 20 ml of the
appropriate solvent and bleeding of the dye in the solvent is then asses-
sed.
Any solvent desired can be used.
Ratings:
5 = no bleeding in the solvent
4 = slight bleeding in the solvent
3 = appreciable bleeding in the solvent
2 = strong bleeding in the solvent
1 = very strong bleeding in the solvent
260
Test methods, leather testing
Fastness to dry cleaning (IUF 434 E)
Accurately measured leather specimens are drummed in a “Wacker”
drum for 30 minutes with a solvent, e. g. perchloroethylene or R 113
(trifluorotrichloroethane), together with a specified accompanying multi-
fibre fabric (e. g., ISO 105-F 10) and TEFLON balls (specified size), with
or without addition of triolein and solvent soaps. The treated leather
specimens are placed between blotting paper under a load of 4.5 kg
for 1 minute and aired off. They are then examined for change in shade,
handle, colour, staining of the accompanying fabric and, if necessary, for
changes in wettability, light fastness and rub fastness (dry and wet).
Dry and wet rub fastness
Testing by hand
a. Dry: Rubbing with an untreated white cotton cloth tightly stretched
over a cork stopper. Rub ten times back and forth with constant
pressure.
b. Wet: Same procedure as in the dry test, except that the cotton cloth
is moistened with distilled water and squeezed off to about
100 % water uptake.
Test with VESLIC rub fastness tester (IUF 450)
A dry felt pad or a felt pad moistened with water in the prescribed way is
rubbed back and forth under a load of 1 kg on the leather that has been
stretched by 0 % or 10 %.
Dry: 20, 50 and 150 rub strokes
(if necessary up to 300 and 500 rub strokes)
Wet: 10 and 50 rub strokes
Report the numerical ratings with the aid of the Grey Scale for the stai-
ning of the wool felt and for the change in colour of the leather.
261
Test methods, leather testing
Fastness to diffusion into crude rubber crepe (IUF 441)
The behaviour of the dyeing with regard to migration of dye from the
leather into crude rubber crepe is tested. The test specimen is bonded
on the side to be tested to crude rubber crepe using white pigmented
crude rubber solution and is exposed under a load of 4.5 kg at 50 °C for
15 hours.
The assessment is made with the aid of the Grey Scale.
Fastness to diffusion into PVC (IUF 442, DIN EN ISO 15701)
The behaviour of the dyeing with regard to migration of dye from the
leather into plasticized polyvinyl chloride is tested.
The assessment is made with the aid of the Grey Scale.
Fastness to buffing of dyed leather (IUF 454)
The behaviour of the dyed leather is tested by buffing. The leather side to
be tested is rubbed back and forth 10 to 110 times on the VESLIC rub
fastness tester with a carborundum emery paper (grit size 320) under a
load of 500 g.
The assessment of change in colour between the lanes after 10 to 110
rub strokes is made with the aid of the Grey Scale. Before the assess-
ment of the change in colour, the buffed area is brushed in the direction
of the nap.
262
Test methods, leather testing
Light fastness
a. Fastness to daylight (IUF 401)
b. Fastness to artificial light (DIN EN ISO 105 B-02)
Leather specimens of not less than 1 cm x 6 cm are exposed to daylight
or artificial light under prescribed conditions together with eight light
fastness standards which consist of pieces of wool cloth dyed with stan-
dard blue dyes of different degrees of fastness.
Standard Colour Index designation
1 = C. I. Acid Blue 104
2 = C. I. Acid Blue 109
3 = C. I. Acid Blue 83
4 = C. I. Acid Blue 121
5 = C. I. Acid Blue 47
6 = C. I. Acid Blue 23
7 = C. I. Solubilized Vat Blue 5
8 = C. I. Solubilized Vat Blue 8
The fastness is assessed by comparing the fading of the leather speci-
men with that of the standards. The result is expressed in a numerical
fastness rating.
1 = very low
2 = low
3 = moderate
4 = fairly good
5 = good
6 = very good
7 = excellent
8 = outstanding
Intermediate ratings can be given.
For leather testing, the ratings from 1 to 6 will suffice, because the test
results are influenced by the amounts and types of tanning agents, fat-
liquors and auxiliaries used and by the strength of the dyeing and the
dyeing method.
263
Test methods, leather testing
Testing of leather finishes
Dry and wet adhesion (IUF 470, ISO 11644)
Measurement of the adhesion (anchorage) of a finish coat to the leather
surface.
a. Quick reference test method with adhesive tape.
b. Quantitative measurement in the tensile strength testing apparatus.
Leather strips of specified length and width are bonded with a speci-
fied adhesive to a firm supporting surface which has been cleaned
with hexane or a mixture of alkane at a boiling range of 40 – 80 °C.
The bonded specimens are then stripped off in the tensile strength
tester at an angle of 90 degrees. At least 4 specimens are tested, two
of each in the cross and longitudinal directions to the backbone line.
For the wet adhesion test, the bonded specimens are placed in a glass
filled with water. The glass with the specimens is evacuated three times
in a vacuum dissicator at 5 kPa maintaining the vacuum each time for 2
minutes. The time between the placing of the specimens into the water
and the measuring should be from 60 to 120 minutes.
Composition of adhesive:
A two-component polymer adhesive is used.
20 g Solids Desmocoll 400 dissolved in 80 –100 g ethyl acetate
+ 5 g Hardener Desmodur L 75
The prepared adhesive mixture should be used up within 8 hours after
addition of the hardener.
264
Test methods, leather testing
Dry and wet rub fastness (DIN 53339, IUF 450)
Assessment of the resistance of the finished leather surface to abrasion,
scuffing and staining.
a. Quick reference test by rubbing with a white cloth under the pressure
of a finger.
b. Test with VESLIC rub fastness tester (IUF 450)
Rubbing a dry felt pad or a felt pad moistened in a prescribed way
under a pressure of 1 kg back and forth against the leather that has
been stretched.
Dry rub fastness: leather dry, felt dry.
Wet rub fastness: leather dry, felt wetted.
Assess the degree of damage or change in the finish coat,
staining of the felt pad and change in colour of the test specimen.
Resistance to swelling (DIN 53339, IUF 450)
Assessment of the behaviour of a finish coat when the whole leather is
submitted to the action of water.
a. Quick reference test by immersing the leather specimen in water and
rubbing subsequently with a dry cloth.
b. Test with VESLIC rub fastness tester
The leather specimen is immersed in water for 1 hour, and a dry felt is
then rubbed back and forth.
Rating as in the dry and wet rub fastness tests.
265
Test methods, leather testing
Flexing endurance (DIN 53351, IUP 20)
Measurement of the flexing endurance of leathers and their surface fin-
ishes through an angle of 22.5 degrees over a prolonged period.
The test is carried out with the Bally flexometer.
Assessment of damage:
a. Damage to the finish may be of the following kinds: greying, minor and
major surface cracks or complete breakthrough, peeling or powder-
ing, loss of adhesion of the finish to the leather or loss of adhesion of
one finish layer to another.
b. Damage to the leather may be of the following kinds: cracking of grain
layer, development of coarse grain folds (pipey grain), loss of an
embossed grain pattern, breakdown of fibres to such an extent that a
hole develops through the entire thickness of the leather.
This test can be carried out with both dry and wet leather specimens.
Elasticity
Behaviour of the finish when the leather is stretched and extended.
a. Quick reference mandrel or key test.
b. Test with Lastometer (IUP 9) or Tensometer (IUP 13).
Assess the changes or the breaking of the finish coat before the grain
cracks.
266
Test methods, leather testing
Fastness to hot ironing
a. The leather specimen is placed over a slightly rounded edge and pla-
ted once back and forth with a hot iron maintained at a constant tem-
perature by thermostat. After each ironing, the test temperature is
increased by 25 degrees Celsius. The change in shade, smearing and
damage to the finish coat are assessed.
b. Test with VESLIC automatic hot ironing tester (VESLIC rub fastness
tester with heatable finger).
The finger has a size of 10 mm x 10 mm and is moved back and forth
five times after which the temperature is increased by 20 °C. This is
repeated until the finish coat shows damage, smearing or change in
shade.
Resistance to hot air
The leather specimen is submitted to the action of a hot air stream at
150 °C for one minute.
The change in shade and other changes in the finish coat are assessed.
Fastness to hot steaming
The leather specimen is placed in a test chamber at 65 °C and 100 %
relative humidity.
The migration of dye, bleeding and swelling are assessed.
Light fastness
The light fastness is tested with the xeno tester (cf. page 263).
267
Test methods, leather testing
Resistance to solvents
Acetone is normally used for the test.
Test with VESLIC rub fastness tester
From the rub fastness tester, the base plate in the center of the carriage
is removed and replaced by a felt over which the leather specimen is
clamped with a distension of 5 %. One ml solvent is dropped at the side
on the felt, and after one minute, the leather is distended once again by
5 % and it is then rubbed five times with a dry felt on the finished side
under a load of 1 kg.
The finish coat is examined for swelling, softening or smearing.
Resistance to detergents and cleansing agents
Similar to the wet rub fastness test, the finished leather surface is tested
with various test solutions.
Resistance to shoe polishes
The leather specimen is tested by rubbing with three basic types of shoe
polishes.
Polishability
A drop of water (about 0.15 ml) is applied to the finished leather surface
and allowed to evaporate overnight at room temperature. The leather
specimen is rubbed with a dry cloth, if necessary after treatment with
shoe polish, to determine whether any stains formed can be removed by
polishing.
268
Test methods, leather testing
Resistance to abrasion
Measurement of the resistance of the leather surface to abrasion.
For this purpose, the VESLIC rub fastness tester is used on which the felt
for the rub fastness test is replaced by a rubber-based abradant surface
15 mm long and 3 mm wide that is rubbed along separate paths against
the leather for a fixed number of times under a specified load.
Under a load of 2 kg: 10 to 50 rubbing strokes
Under a load of 5 kg: 5 rubbing strokes
The leather can be tested wet or dry.
The test specimen is examined for changes in the leather surface and for
change in shade with the aid of the Grey Scale.
Resistance to ageing
The leather samples are conditioned in the drying oven for
a. 7 days at 50 °C or
b. 3 days at 80 °C
before they are examined for embrittlement or yellowing and for changes
in elasticity and flexing endurance.
269
Test methods, leather testing
Fogging test (DIN 75201)
Fogging refers to the condensation of evaporated, volatile components of
the interior automobile trim materials on the glass plates, especially on
the wind shield.
The test consisting of two different methods is carried out with the fog-
ging tester of Haake-Meßtechnik, Karlsruhe, Germany.
a. Reflectometric test
A car upholstery leather specimen is placed on the bottom of a glass
beaker which is immersed to a certain depth into a heated bath
(100 °C) regulated by thermostat. On top of the glass beaker, which is
closed by means of a cleaned glass plate with seal, cooling plates
maintaining a temperature of 21 °C are placed. The cooling causes
the substances evaporating from the leather to condensate on the
glass plate.
The quantity of fogging condensation on the glass plate is recorded
by measuring the 60° angle of reflection of the same glass plate (blind
value) without condensation.
Fogging value FR = quotient in % of the 60° reflectometer value of a
glass plate with fogging condensation and the
same glass plate without condensation.
b. Gravimetric test
Instead of the glass plate used in the reflectometer test, a light alumi-
nium sheet is used here and the specimens are treated for 16 hours
instead of 3 hours at 100 °C.
The condensate is weighed and reported in mg.
Both test methods prescribe that the specimens be dried for 7 days in a
dissiccator using phosphorous pentoxide.
270
Test methods, leather testing
Important dimensions for analytics
1 percent 0.01 gram per gram 0.01 g/g
(10-2)
(one part in a hundred) (=one hundredth of a gram/g)
1 permill 1 milligram per gram 0.001 g/g
(= one thousandth of a gram/g) (10-3)
(one part in a thousand)
1 ppm 1 microgram per gram 0.000 001 g/g
(10-6)
(one part per million) (= one millionth of a gram/g)
1 ppb 1 nanogram per gram 0.000 000 001 g/g
(10-9)
(one part per billion) (= one billionth of a gram/g)
1 ppt 1 picogram per gram 0.000 000 000 001 g/g
(10-12)
(one part per trillion) (= one trillionth of a gram/g)
1 ppq 1 femtogram per gram 0.000 000 000 000 001 g/g
(10-15)
(one part per quadrillion) (= one quadrillionth
of a gram/g)
271
Suppliers of standard test methods
1. DIN standards Beuth Verlag GmbH
(also DIN EN, Burggrafenstraße 6
DIN EN ISO, ISO) 10787 Berlin or
www.beuth.de
2. IUC, IUP, IUF German publications:
methods Eduard Roether Verlag
Berliner Allee 56
64295 Darmstadt
English publications:
Society of Leather Trades’ Chemists
52, Crouch Hall Lane
Redbourn, Herts., UK
3. VESLIC methods Association of Swiss Leather Chemists and
Technologists
www.veslic.ch
4. BS standards British Standard Institution
(British) Society of Leather Trades’ Chemists
52, Crouch Hall Lane
Redbourn, Herts., UK
5. ISO standards International Organization
for Standardization
www.iso.org
Case Postale 56
CH 1211 Geneva 20
6. ASTM methods American Society for
(U.S.) Testing and Materials,
www.astm.org
Philadelphia, Pa 19428-2959
272
Indicators, pH value
pH Value, indicators, charge relations
pH Value
The pH value is the negative logarithm to the base 10 of the hydrogen ion
concentration.
Derivation:
In pure water, the concentration of hydrogen ions [H3O+] is equal to the
concentration of hydroxyl ions [OH– ], viz
[H3O+] = [OH– ] = 10-7 mol/l
At this equilibrium, the water has a neutral reaction. In practice, the
minus sign is dropped, 10-7 = pH 7.
According to the above equation, if the hydrogen ion concentration in an
aqueous system is increased, the hydroxyl ion concentration becomes
less, and the system has an acid reaction.
If the hydroxyl ion concentration is increased, the hydrogen ion concen-
tration decreases accordingly, and the solution has an alkaline reaction.
pH = 1 pH = 7 pH = 14
acid neutral alkaline
Determination of pH value
1. Potentiometric (electrometric)
with a hydrogen electrode or glass electrode (measuring range
pH 0 – pH 14)
2. Colorimetric
with indicators or indicator papers.
273
Indicators, pH value
Common indicators
Indicator Effective Colour change Concentration
pH range of solution
Thymol Blue 1.2 – 2.8 red – yellow 0.1% in 20 %
alcohol
Dimethyl Yellow 2.9 – 4.0 red – yellow 0.1% in 90 %
alcohol
Bromophenol Blue 3.0 – 4.6 yellow – blue 0.1% in 20 %
alcohol
Congo Red 3.0 – 5.0 blue – red 1% in water
Methyl Orange 3.2 – 4.4 red – yellow 0.1% in water
Bromocresol Green 3.8 – 5.4 yellow – blue 0.1% in 50 %
alcohol
Methyl Red 4.8 – 6.0 red – yellow 0.2 % in 90 %
alcohol
Litmus 5.0 – 8.0 red – blue 0.3 % in 90 %
alcohol
Bromocresol Purple 5.2 – 6.8 yellow – purple red 0.04 % in 90 %
alcohol
Bromothymol Blue 6.0 – 7.6 yellow – blue 0.1% in 20 %
alcohol
274
Indicators, pH value
Common indicators
Indicator Effective Colour change Concentration
pH range of solution
Neutral Red 6.8 – 8.0 red – 0.1 in 70 %
yellowish orange alcohol
Phenol Red 6.6 – 8.0 yellow – red 0.02 % in 90 %
alcohol
o-Cresol Red 7.0 – 8.8 yellow – purple red 0.1% in 20 %
alcohol
Tropaeoline 000 7.6 – 8.9 yellowish green – 1% in water
pink
Phenolphthalein 8.2 –10.0 colourless – pink 1.0 % in 50 %
alcohol
Thymol Blue 8.0 – 9.6 yellow – blue 0.1% in 20 %
alcohol
Thymolphthalein 9.4 –10.6 colourless – blue 0.1% in 90 %
alcohol
Alizarin Yellow R 10.1 –12.0 yellow – red 0.1% in 50 %
alcohol
Tropaeoline O 11.3 –13.0 yellow – orange red 0.1% in water
275
Indicators, pH value
pH colour range of bromocresol green
Mainly used in pickling, chrome tanning and neutralization.
Colour: Yellow = pH 3.5 and lower
Yellow-green = pH 4.0
Green = pH 4.5
Blue-green = pH 5.0
Blue = pH 5.5 and higher
Determining the charge on leather surfaces with charge indicator
Composition:
0,05 g Luganil Orange GGC, dissolved in 10 ml water
0,0025 g Crystal Violet, dissolved in 90 ml ethanol
= 100 ml indicator
Procedure:
Test by dropping indicator solution on to the leather surface.
Cationic charge = yellow inner circle surrounded by a blue ring
Anionic charge = blue inner circle surrounded by a yellow ring
276
Indicators, pH value
Charge relations on pelts and leathers
COO-
+
H 3N pelt collagen
(Amino group) (Carboxyl group)
isoelectric point (I.P.) at
pH ~ 5
By lowering the pH By increasing the pH
Dissociation of Dissociation of
amino groups carboxyl groups
Increasing positive charge and Increasing negative charge and
increasing reaction with increasing reaction with
ANIONS CATIONS
e. g. e. g.
vegetable and synthetic common basic chromium(III)
tannins, masked chromium salts,
salts, anionic dyes, aluminium tanning agents,
sulfated and sulfonated cationic resin tanning agents,
oils or fatliquoring agents, basic dyes,
anionic wetting and cationic fatliquoring agents
dyeing auxiliaries. and auxiliaries.
Change of I.P.
by tannage
Shifting towards the acid Shifting towards the alkaline
side (down to pH 3 and side (up to pH 7 and more) by
lower) by aldehyde tannage, the common cationic one-bath
sulfochloride tannage, chrome tannage, cationic resin
vegetable and synthetic tannage, tannage.
tannage with masked chrome
tanning agents.
277
Weight and area of leather
Relations between weight, area and yield in
leather production
Weight designations used in leather production
Green weight = flayed hide or skin (cooled, bled thoroughly;
minus horns, hoofs, ears, legs, tail bones,
udder, adhering flesh).
Salted weight = weight after salting with solid salt or after
treatment in brine.
Water content of hides and skins 30 – 45 %.
Heavy hides = 7 –15 % loss in weight of green weight
Calf skins = 6 –12 % loss in weight of green weight
Sheep, goat skins = 4 –10 % loss in weight of green weight
Pig skins = 2 –14 % loss in weight of green weight
General method of calculations (cattle hides, calf skins):
Green weight = salted weight +10 %
Salted weight = green weight – 19 %
Dry salted weight = weight after predrying and subsequent salting
or vice versa.
Water content of hides and skins 15 – 25 %.
Cattle hides
Calf skins = 40 – 45 % loss in weight of green weight.
Sheep, goat skins
Dry weight = weight after curing by drying.
Water content of hides and skins 12 – 20 %.
Hides and skins = 55 – 65 % loss in weight of green weight.
278
Weight and area of leather
Soaked weight = weight of hide or skin after proper wetting
back and draining.
Of salted hides and skins, minimum 100 % (up to 110 % possible) of
green weight.
Of dried hides and skins 90 –100 % of green weight.
Pelt weight = weight of hide or skin after all beamhouse
operations, i. e. after removal of skin compo-
nents which do not yield leather.
Water content of pelts 70 – 85 %.
Pelt weight obtained from green weight = 170 –1 95 %
salted weight = 190 – 120 %
dry salted weight = 140 – 160 %
dry weight = 140 – 240 %
Tanned weight = weight of hide or skin after completion of
tannage and after horsing up for at least
12 hours.
Water content of leather 70 – 85 %.
Setting out weight = weight of hide or skin after treatment on the
setting out machine.
Water content of leather 50 – 70 %.
Sammed weight = weight of hide or skin after treatment on the
samming machine.
Water content of leather 40 – 50 %.
Shaved weight = weight of hide or skin after shaving to the
thickness desired.
Water content of leather 35 – 45 %.
Leather dry weight = weight of leather after drying, i. e. after com-
pletion of all wet processes.
Water content of leather 8 – 20 %.
279
Weight and area of leather
Conversion factors for various curing stages of hides and skins
(According to UNFAO, Rome, for the OECD region)
Green: salted = 1 : 0.85
Green: dry-salted = 1 : 0.55
Green: dry = 1 : 0.35
Green: pickled = 1 : 0.65
Salted: green = 1 : 1.2
Salted: dry-salted = 1 : 0.65
Salted: dry = 1 : 0.4
Salted: pickled = 1 : 0.8
Dry-salted: green = 1 : 1.85
Dry-salted: salted = 1 : 1.5
Dry-salted: dry = 1 : 0.8
Dry-salted: pickled = 1 : 1.2
Dry: green = 1 : 2.85
Dry: salted = 1 : 2.5
Dry: dry-salted = 1 : 1.3
Dry: pickled = 1 : 2.0
Pickled: green = 1 : 1.55
Pickled: salted = 1 : 1.25
Pickled: dry-salted = 1 : 0.8
Pickled: dry = 1 : 0.5
280
Weight and area of leather
Area and weight yields of some types of raw hides
1 kg salted weight of:
= 0.158 m2 = 1.69 sq. ft
• U.S. Packers (50/60 lbs)
= 0.141 m2 = 1.51 sq. ft
• Argent. cattle hides (14/16 kg)
= 0.185 m2 = 1.98 sq. ft
• Scand. cattle hides (17/24 kg)
= 0.154 m2 = 1.65 sq. ft
• Cows/Central Europe (30/39.5 kg)
= 0.122 m2 = 1.31 sq. ft
• Bulls/Central Europe (30/39.5 kg)
The yield can be determined only when processing large batches of hides
or skins.
The yield is decisively dependent on the class of raw hide or skin, the
weight class and the country of origin.
No generally applicable figures can therefore be given.
Area yield of various types of finished leathers
1 kg finished weight of Leather Leather
(cattle hide) thickness area ca.
= 1.7 m2
• Nappa clothing leather 1.0 mm
= 1.5 m 2
• Furniture upholstery leather 1.2 mm
= 1.5 m2
• Automotive leather 1.2 mm
= 0.8 m2
• Corrected grain side leather 1.5 mm
= 0.6 m2
• Softy leather 1.9 mm
= 0.8 m2
• Box side (black) 1.5 mm
= 0.5 m2
• Sports box 2.2 mm
Area yield is largely dependent on structure of hide, tannage, retannage,
fatliquoring and finishing.
281
Weight and area of leather
Leather production costs
The percentages indicated should be considered only as approximate
figures, as the rawstock prices are subject to considerable fluctuations,
depending on availability and market conditions. Moreover, the wage
costs as well as the costs of chemicals differ largely in the individual
countries.
Chemicals
ca. 10 %
Production
overhead costs
ca. 20 %
Wage costs
ca. 12 %
Energy
Rawstock
ca. 3 %
ca. 55 %
282
Weight and area of leather
Materials required for the production of various types of leather
1. Products for the wet processes
(approximate amounts required in kilogram)
Upper leather, Sole leather, Nappa leather,
cattle hide cattle hide lamb skin
per 100 kg per 100 kg per 100 kg
salted weight salted weight dry weight
Soaking agents 0.1 – 0.3 0.1 – 0.3 0.5 –1.5
(e. g. Mollescal BW)
Liming chemicals 3.0 – 5.0 3.0 – 5.0 6.0 –10.0
(Na2S, Mollescal SF,
NaSH)
(hydrated lime) 2.0 – 6.0 1.0 – 3.0 6.0 –10.0
Deliming agents 1.0 – 3.0 1.0 – 2.0 2.0 – 5.0
(e. g. Decaltal types)
Bating agents
(e. g. Basozym 1000) 0.5 –1.5 – 1.0 – 3.0
Chrome tanning agents 5.0 –10.0 – 8.0 –15.0
(e. g. Chromitan types)
Vegetable tanning
materials 1.0 – 5.0 20.0 – 40.0 3.0 – 5.0
(e. g. mimosa)
Synthetic tanning agents 1.0 – 5.0 5.0 –15.0 5.0 –15.0
(e. g. Basyntan types)
Neutralizing agents 0.5 – 2.0 – 1.5 – 4.0
(e. g. Neutrigan)
Wetting agents 0.2 – 0.5 – 1.5 – 6.0
(e. g. Eusapon S)
Fatliquors 2.0 – 8.0 0.5 –1.5 3.0 –10.0
(e. g. Lipoderm
Liquor types)
Dyes 0.5 – 3.0 – 1.0 – 6.0
(e. g. Luganil types)
The amounts required are largely dependent on the rawstock, the pro-
cessing method in the individual tanneries and the type of processing
vessels used (paddle, drum, mixer, Y-drum).
283
Weight and area of leather
2. Finishing products
(Approximate amounts required in g per m2 leather)
Products Full grain leather Correct. Splits
grain side
aniline semi- pigmen-
aniline ted
Pigments 0– 3 5 – 20 20 – 40 20 – 50 30 – 60
(e. g. Lepton Colours N)
Aniline dyes 20 – 40 10 – 20 5 – 10 0 – 10 0– 5
(e. g. Eukesolar Dyes
150 Liquid)
Binders 5 – 30 10 – 50 40 – 80 80 – 120 140 – 240
(e. g. Astacin Finish and
Corial, Lepton Binder
types)
Auxiliaries 5 – 20 10 – 30 10 – 40 20 – 40 20 – 40
(e. g., waxes, modifiers,
and flow improvers)
Top coating emulsions 20 – 60 20 – 60 20 – 60 30 – 60 30 – 60
(e. g. Corial EM Finish)
Waster based top coats 20 – 60 20 – 60 20 – 60 30 – 60 30 – 60
(Astacin/Lepton Top
and Astacin/Lepton
Matting ranges)
Organic solvents 0 – 10 0 – 30 0 – 30 0 – 80 0 – 40
The amounts required are largely dependent on the finishing technique,
the desired degree of pigmentation as well as on the requirements im-
posed regarding appearance, surface handle and physical properties.
284
Safety, environmental protection
Safety and environmental protection
Safety Data Sheets
Since around 1975, the safety data sheet has been the medium by which
manufacturers of chemicals for industrial use have informed their custo-
mers on the safe handling of chemicals and the hazards that they pose in
practice.
Safety Data Sheets - Historical development
1975 Issued on a voluntary basis for dyes and pigments
(on initiative of ETAD)
1977 Issued for auxiliaries
(on initiative of VCI, TEGEWA, etc.)
1983 DIN 52900
1991 EU Directive 91/155 EEC (for preparations)
Contents of Safety Data Sheets standardized
1993 EU Directive 93/112 EEC (Directive 91/155/EEC extended to
include substances)
2001 EU Directive 01/58 EEC (contents of MSDS)
EC Material Safety Data Sheets (EC-MSDS) are mandatory for all
that require classification products with effect from 1 July 1993.
It has been standard practice at BASF for many years to issue safety
data sheets according to this standard for every single product, irrespec-
tive of whether or not it requires classification.
According to the legal requirements in EC every customer is automati-
cally sent a safety data sheet the first time a product is ordered. In a
period of one year customers are automatically sent the latest version
whenever amendments are necessary because of new findings, etc.
In other countries following other chemical legislation as EC the form of
the safety data sheet is following other legal rules.
In the last years the international harmonisation efforts bring these coun-
tries specifics more and more closely together.
For that reason we give above some overview only for the EC-MSDS.
For self-understanding reason the different countries still have the requi-
rements to have the MSDS available in the country-specific language.
285
Safety, environmental protection
The data contained in the EC-MSDS give information on the safe hand-
ling of products, hazardous ingredients and carriage recommendations,
as well as on the chemical, physical, toxicological and ecological pro-
perties of products, and the resultant classification and labelling. It has to
be made available in the language of the EU member in question.
Structure of the EC-MSDS
1. Substance/preparation and company name, intended use
2. Composition/information on hazard ingredients
3. Possible hazards
4. First aid measures
5. Fire-fighting measures
6. Accidental release measures
7. Handling and storage
8. Exposure controls and personal protection
9. Physical and chemical properties
10. Stability and reactivity
11. Toxicological information
12. Ecological information
13. Disposal considerations
14. Transport information
15. Regulatory information (labelling)
16. Other information
The most important information presented in each individual section is
summarized below. More detailed information is contained in EU Directive
2001/58/EEC.
The main purpose of Sections 1 and 2 is to identify the product in que-
stion. They contain information on the product name, chemical nature,
the address of the company and an emergency telephone number and
the intended use. It is not necessary to list all of the ingredients of prepa-
rations and their concentrations, but it is obligatory to list hazardous
ingredients if they exceed the concentrations specified in the EU Prepara-
tions Directive (1999/45/EEC) and components which have official wor-
king-place-hazard-limits.
286
Safety, environmental protection
Sections 3 to 8 contain information on the potential hazards that can be
posed to man and the environment on exposure to the product in que-
stion under various conditions and safety instructions.
• Recommended extinguishants and unsuitable extinguishants.
• Toxic combustion products formed in the case of fire.
• Technical precautions to be taken during handling and storage, such
as avoiding electrostatic discharges, preventing dust from being rai-
sed, etc.
• General principles of industrial hygiene and, if necessary, personal
equipment (protective clothing, respirators, etc.) required to minimize
exposure.
Sections 9 –12 contain the physical and chemical data used to assess
products on the basis of their reactivity and stability under different stor-
age conditions, their toxic effects on mammals, and their effects in water,
soil and air. These data form the basis for the information presented in
Sections 3 - 8 and 13 - 15.
Section 13 contains information on suitable methods of disposal or recy-
cling.
Section 14 contains comprehensive information on carriage regulations.
It covers the various classes and divisions of dangerous goods, codes for
transport by road and rail, UN numbers, technical designations and infor-
mation relating to carriage by parcel post and express goods services,
etc.
Section 15 contains information on labelling. Labelling is a concise
means of presenting important information required to ensure safe hand-
ling. Substances are labelled according to Annex VI of EU Directive
67/548/EEC and preparations according to 1999/45/EEC. The labelling
usually takes the form of hazard symbols, hazard warnings, risk
phrases (R phrases) and safety phrases (S phrases).
The classification and labelling of hazardous preparations is based either
on available data, component (i.e. substance) data or calculation “% pro-
portion of hazardous substances contained in the preparation”.
It is important to ensure that the labelling refers exclusively to the poten-
tial hazards posed by the product in question, and recommendations
designed to guarantee safe handling. The labelling does not constitute a
risk assessment (see “Interpretation of data contained in EC-MSDS”).
Section 15 can also contain details required by national legislation. For
instance, EC-MSDS issued in Germany contain details required by water
conservation legislation (Wassergefährdungsklasse).
287
Safety, environmental protection
Section 16 can contain other information relevant to safety and occupa-
tional health which is not covered by the other sections, such as:
• Sources of the most important data used to compile the safety data
sheet
• Suggested reading (technical information leaflets, publications, etc.)
Classification “Dangerous for the environment”
Directive 91 /325/EEC and 1999/45/EEC stipulate that substances and
preparations are classified according to ecological criteria.
The hazard classification “dangerous for the environment” has been in
use for some time in the case of substances.
Due to the revision of the EU Dangerous Preparations Directive the
hazard classification “Dangerous for the environment” has now been
extended to include preparations. As this classification is new for prepa-
rations in the leather industry BASF normally only sell preparations
according to chem-law-definition. A short overview will be given for that
issue.
The potential effects of chemicals on the environment are assessed
according to their acute toxicity to fish, daphnia and algae, their removal
from waste water (by biotic and/or abiotic means), their potential for bio-
accumulation and their chronic toxicity to aquatic life. Data that are rele-
vant for classification purposes are listed in Section 12 of the safety data
sheet. Products are rated according to the hazards posed to the environ-
ment on the basis of adverse effect levels in the same way that they are
classified according to their acute toxicity in mammals.
The evaluation of the health and environmental hazards of a preparation
can be assessed in analogue to the acute toxicity either by a calculation
method based on the concentration(s) in the preparation of any compo-
nents(s) that are hazardous or based on tests carried out on the prepara-
tion itself. If test results are available for the preparation then the hazard
classification based on these results has priority over calculation
methods.
288
Safety, environmental protection
The hazard symbol “N”, the dead fish and dead tree pictogram, the
hazard warning “Dangerous for the environment” and the risk phrases R
50/51/52/53 are used to label substances according to environmental
hazards. Substances and preparations are classified in six different cate-
gories which are designated by risk phrases. Substances allocated to
categories I to III have to be labelled with the hazard symbol “N” and the
pictogram. Substances in categories IV to VI only need to be labelled
with the appropriate risk phrases.
Apart from data relevant to the “Dangerous for the environment” classifi-
cation Section 12 of our EC-MSDS can contain other information such
as:
• The effects of the substance in question on waste-water bacteria
and its behaviour in effluent treatment plants;
• An assessment of the quality of the waste water in terms of its chemi-
cal oxygen demand and biochemical oxygen demand (COD,
BOD); and
• the possibility of contamination of the waste water with AOX and
heavy metals as indicated by the product's organic halogen content
and heavy metal content. (lt must be borne in mind that this informa-
tion always refers to the product itself. The actual level of contamina-
tion, especially with products that are incorporated into the leather
substrate during processing is much lower in practice.)
The labelling required on account of the product in question being classi-
fied as “Dangerous for the environment” is given in Section 15.
Interpretation of data contained in EC-MSDS
EC-MSDS contain information and recommendations that are designed
to make it possible to handle chemical products safely. This requires
extensive experimental work which consumes a great deal of time effort
and money. In safety data sheets, the results of this work are presented
in condensed form, and this can lead to misinterpretation. The greatest
scope for misinterpretation is in the area of toxicology (Section 11). This
is discussed below.
It is rarely the case that the toxicology of chemical products can be eva-
luated from direct experience of their effects in man, and so animal expe-
riments have to be used instead. Strict legal controls apply to these
experiments. The design of experiments and methodology are laid down
in detail, they are subject to an extensive licensing system and they are
monitored continuously. Products are assessed according to their acute
289
Safety, environmental protection
oral toxicity, irritation to the skin and mucous membranes, mutagenic,
teratogenic and carcinogenic effects and the effects of repeated or pro-
longed exposure. The results form the criteria by which products are
classified, and they are taken into consideration together with other
data to determine the product's labelling (Section 15).
Labelling is a means of drawing the user's attention to potential
hazards, informing the user of recommendations for safe usage and
warning the user against improper use. The potential hazards posed by a
product are often confused with the real risk that it poses. For instance,
a product that is labelled is not necessarily harmful if it is used properly.
Labelling a product as harmful means that the product is only harmful if
the user is exposed to it in a particular way.
The risk posed to man and the environment can be assessed from the
potential hazard x exposure.
The potential hazard posed by a product is a constant factor. The level
of exposure is variable and this determines the overall risk. The expo-
sure to a product is governed by the quantity administered, the length
of time for which it is administered, the route by which it is applied, etc.
The user can be protected from the full potential hazards posed by a
chemical by limiting the extent to which he is exposed to it. With dange-
rous substances, a variety of regulations have to be observed, such as
occupational exposure limits, health and safety regulations, safety fac-
tors, and restrictions or total bans on the use of products.
This implies that hazardous products are safe to use if they are handled
properly and if the recommended safety precautions are followed.
The impact of chemical products on the environment can only be asses-
sed full by considering the actual quantities entering the environment and
these figures are dependent on local and regional conditions. It is, there-
fore, essential that end-users and local authorities have access to all the
relevant product data standing in section 16. In order to support person-
nel involved in such environmental work the manufacturer must make the
data available in a readily understandable form. Emphasis is placed here
on the communication of data by means of a safety data sheet contai-
ning all relevant data.
290
Safety, environmental protection
Regulations concerning the transportation of materials classified
as dangerous goods
Road/Rail GGVE/GGVS Gefahrgutverordnung Eisenbahn/Straße
RID*/ADR Règlement international concernant le trans-
port des marchandises dangereuses par che-
min de fer/Accord européen relatif au trans-
port international des marchandises par
route.
Waterway IMDG** International maritime dangerous goods code
ADN/ADNR Inland waterway transport
Air ICAO/IATA**
Class 1: Explosives and articles containing explosives
Class 2: Compressed, liquefied or dissolved gases under pressure
Class 3: Inflammable, liquid materials (combustible liquids)
Class 4.1: Inflammable materials
Class 4.2: Spontaneously combustible materials
Class 4.3: Materials developing inflammable gases when wet
Class 5.1: Oxidizing materials
Class 5.2: Organic peroxides
Class 6.1: Toxic materials
Class 6.2: Nauseating or infectious substances
Class 7: Radioactive substances
Corrosive substances
Class 8:
Class 9: Other dangerous substances and articles
* http://www.otif.org
** http:/www.hazmathelp.com
291
Safety, environmental protection
Danger symbols – marking according to the Regulation on
Dangerous Goods (GefStoffV)
Xi Xn
also for
Harmful – Nocif
Schadelijk – Nocivo
Chronically
damaging
Sensitising
Gesundheitsschädlich
Reizend – Irritant Sundheds(Hoise)-skadelig
Harmful to health
Irritant
T T+
Toxic(o) – Toxique Very toxic – Molto tossico
Muy toxico – Muito tóxico
Tossico
Carcinogenic
Mutagenic
Sehr giftig – Très toxique
Giftig – Vergiftig Meget giftig – Zeer vergiftig
Toxic Very toxic
O F F+
Highly/Facilement Extremely
Oxidizing – Comburant
inflammable inflammable
Hochentzündlich
Leicht entzündlich
Brandfördernd
Oxidizing Highly inflammable Extremely inflammable
C E N
Corrosive – Corrosif
Corrosivo
Ätzend – Corrosief
Explosive
Ætsende – Etsende
Corrosive Explosive Environmentally hazardous
292
Safety, environmental protection
Danger labels prescribed by IMDG Code
(International maritime dangerous goods code)
Marking according to the Regulation on Dangerous Goods.
POISON
FLAMMABLE GAS
EXPLOSIVE GAS
*
1 2 2
Explosive Flammable Gas Poison Gas
Orange Red White
NON-FLAMMABLE FLAMMABLE LIQUID FLAMMABLE SOLID
COMPRESSED GAS
2 3 4
Flammable solid
Flammable
Non-flammable
Red,
liquid
compressed gas
vertical stripes
Red
Green
POISON
SPONTANEOUSLY DANGEROUS WHEN WET
COMBUSTIBLE
4 4 6
Poison
Dangerous
Spontaneously
White
when wet
combustible
Blue
Red, lower half
293
Safety, environmental protection
Danger labels prescribed by IMDG Code
(International maritime dangerous goods code)
Marking according to the Regulation on Dangerous Goods.
INFECTIOUS SUBSTANCE
HARMFUL OXIDIZING AGENT
In Case of Damage or Leakage
Immediately Notify
STOW AWAY FROM
Public Health
FOODSTUFFS
Authority
5.1
6
6
Harmful Infectious Oxidizing agent
substance Yellow
RADIOACTIVE I RADIOACTIVE II
ORGANIC PEROXIDE CONTENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Inhalt CONTENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Inhalt
ACTIVITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Aktivität ACTIVITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Aktivität
Transport-
kennzahl
TRANSPORT INDEX
5.2 7 7
Organic peroxide Radioactive I Radioactive II
Yellow White White
RADIOACTIVE
RADIOACTIVE III
CORROSIVE
CONTENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Inhalt
ACTIVITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Aktivität
Transport-
kennzahl
TRANSPORT INDEX
7
7 8
Radioactive III Radioactive Yellow, Corrosive
White upper half Black, lower half
294
Safety, environmental protection
Some basic terms concerning the safe handling of chemicals
Dose (D) Measured or prescribed amount of a sub-
stance.
Some common abbreviations:
toxic dose
Dtox
DE efficient dose
DL (LD) lethal dose
ID individual dose
IMD individual maximum dose
MD maximum dose
MDD maximum daily dose
ND normal dose
DD daily dose
MDD maximum daily dose
The lethal dose is subdivided into:
the absolutely lethal dose
LD100
the average lethal dose, at which 50 %
LD50
of the animals in the experiment are kil-
led
the maximum non-lethal dose.
LD0
Flash Point DIN 53169
The flash point is the lowest temperature, at a
pressure of 1013.25 mbar, at which vapours are
developed from the specimen under the condi-
tions of this standard in such quantities that
they form together with air over the liquid level a
mixture that can be inflamed by foreign ignition.
The MAK value (maximale Arbeitsplatz-Konzen-
MAK
tration) is the maximum allowable concentration
in the workplace of a working material in the
form of gas, vapour, or air-suspended matter
which, according to our present state of know-
ledge, generally does not impair the health of
the workers and does not inconvenience them
unduly, not even on repeated and prolonged
exposure for normally 8 hours daily under the
condition of a weekly working time of up to 45
hours. As a rule, the MAK value is integrated as
295
Safety, environmental protection
an average value over periods of up to one wor-
king day or one work shift. In establishing MAK
values, the main consideration is the characteri-
stic effects of the materials, but as far as possi-
ble consideration is also given to the practical
conditions of the working processes or of the
resultant exposure pattern. What finally matters
is the scientifically based criteria of industrial
hygiene, and not the technical and economical
possibilities of implementation in industrial prac-
tice.
Safety labels Drums, containers etc. containing hazardous
products must be marked with specific labels
that make it possible to classify the product at
one glance.
Toxicity The degree of being poisonous.
Subdivided in
a. acute toxicity = poisoning produced by a
single dose
b. subchronical = poisoning produced by
toxicity repeated dosage within a
relatively short time
c. chronical toxicity = poisoning produced by
repeated dosage over a
relatively long time.
296
Safety, environmental protection
Environmental protection
Environmental protection starts with the selection of environmentally
friendly products and processes and continues with an appropriate
treatment of waste water and airborne emissions.
Selection of environmentally friendly products and processes in leather
production
Soaking • Fresh raw hides free of salt (green hides)
• Biodegradable surfactants
Liming • Low sulfide and sulfide-free liming processes
• Hair saving processes
• Recycling of spent liquor
Deliming • Low ammonium and ammonium-free deliming
processes
Bating • Low ammonium and ammonium-free bating pro-
cesses
Pickling • Low salt and salt-free pickling processes
Tannage • Recycling of residual chromium in spent tanning
liquor from wet blue production
• Improved chrome exhaustion and fixation
• Pretanning and shaving of the pretanned pelts
• Alternative tanning techniques without chromium
Retannage • Retanning agents with high exhaustion
• Polymeric tanning agents
• Low-phenol and low-formaldehyde syntans
• Low-salt liquid retanning agents
• Low-formaldehyde resin tanning agents
• Aldehyde tanning agents
Dyeing • Dedusted powder dyes
• Liquid dyes
• Fixing agents
• Dyeing auxiliaries
Fatliquoring • AOX-free fatliquors
• Polymeric fatliquors with high exhaustion
Water repellent • Water repellents that do not need to be fixed
treatment with metal salts
Finishing • Aqueous finishing systems
• Pigment preparations free of heavy metals
297
Safety, environmental protection
Legislation
Different approaches are taken to environmental legislation in different
states, and legislation is applied to different phenomena. This makes it
very difficult to draw direct comparisons between the legislation that
applies to different countries. Further more environmental legislation is
subject to continual amendment. It is not the aim of this booklet to
describe environmental legislation world wide and list limits in waste
water and airborne emissions. The following is just an overview on what
has to be taken into account on responsible handling of tannery emissi-
ons.
In tanneries all over the world the waste water is nowadays treated in
effluent treatment plants. The following steps are generally run through,
although they may be arranged in a different order, or repeated several
times, or combined differently according to the requirements.
298
Safety, environmental protection
Waste water treatment (flow chart)
Waste
water
storage Separation of setting and floating
materials
a. coarse materials by rakes
Mechanical b. sand by sand traps
treatment c. grease and oil by separators
Sludge
Preclarification
Setting and removal of sediment
Removal of colloidal and dissolved
components by precipitation with
Chemical
selective flocculating agents and
treatment
conversion with special chemicals
and adjustment of pH
Sludge
Clarification
Setting and removal of sediment
Biochemical degradation by
a. activated sludge with surface air
or compressed air ventilation
Biological
b. percolating filter (bed of porous
treatment
stone or plastics with biomass) –
spray systems
Sludge
Afterclarification basin
Main drain
299
Safety, environmental protection
Water-polluting substances
Water pollutants are solid, liquid and gaseous substances which are
capable of changing the physical, chemical or biological conditions of
waters to a lasting extent.
In Germany for example, installations for storing, filling and treating
water-polluting substances and installations using water-pollutants in
industry and public facilities have to be so constructed that waters are
neither polluted nor lastingly changed in their properties (German Water
Conservation Law, paragraph 19 g).
The German ministry responsible for the protection of environment and
nature and for reactor safety has classified the pollutants according to
their potential hazard in a catalogue (published 9 March 1990).
Classification of water pollutants in 4 classes:
Class 3: strongly water-polluting substances
Class 2: water-polluting substances
Class 1: weakly water-polluting substances
Class 0: substances which generally have no water-polluting effect
The assessment of the water-polluting potential is based on the specific
properties of the substances:
– acute toxicity on mammals,
– aquatic toxicity on fishes, dolphins, algae and bacteria,
– biological degradability (hydrolysis, photolysis, oxidation, etc.),
– soil mobility,
– ability to accumulate biologically,
– carcinogenic effect,
– mutagenic effect,
– teratogenic effect.
Producers of preparations can classify their products according to their
own material specifications.
300
Safety, environmental protection
Types of sludge and treatment
Primary sludge Solids which are directly separated from the
waste water (coarse and fine sludge, containing
hide and skin fibres, hairs and hair particles,
shavings, waste leather, lime, reaction pro-
ducts, e.g. chemicals, tanning agents, and fatty
materials). 3 – 5 m3 of primary sludge per ton of
processed raw hide or skin with ca. 5 % of dry
substance.
Secondary sludge Flocculant sediments (fine sludge), obtained
after chemical or biological treatment; 1 – 2 % of
dry substance.
Methods of treatment (dewatering)
1. Thickening (mechanical settling).
2. Putrefaction with exclusion of air in digestion towers (for 20 – 30 days
at ca. 33 °C). Organic components are largely decomposed with for-
mation of methane gas.
3. Drying by heating (drum kiln).
4. Mechanical dewatering after conditioning with pressure filters
(chamber filter presses) vacuum filters/suction cell filters, sieves
(gravel filters) and centrifugal hydroextractors.
Disposal of sludge and solid wastes
1. Disposal on dumping sites permitted only for solid or solidified materi-
als that involve no hygienic hazard. The materials must not burn, dust,
or form objectionable odours, and they must contain no components
that can be dissolved by rain water.
2. Combustion of waste materials at high oven temperature and with
ensurance of waste gas purity.
3. Composting: Suitable for waste mixtures with a carbon: nitrogen ratio
of 20 – 30:1. (Optimum solution for maintenance of natural material
balance).
301
Safety, environmental protection
Leather processing: Wastes/Leather substance
1. Wastes
Calculated on 100 % weight of salted raw skin:
Fleshings for glue 14 –16 %
Trimmings for glue 14 –18 %
Sewage sludge (soluble proteins, solubilized hair) 12 –16 %
Hair (recovered from hairsaving liming processes) 0 –15 %
If green hides are used please note that the values have to be about 15 %
higher.
Calculated on 100 % weight of wet blue
Shavings approx. 5 %
Shaved Trimmings approx. 15 %
2. Leather substance (Calculated on 100% weight of wet blue)
Grain split 47 – 50 %
Flesh split approx. 40 %
Recovery of wastes
1. Wool Textile mills
Hair, bristles Production of felts, carpets, non-wovens,
brushes.
2. Split offal and Gelatine, sausage skins, protein powder,
Trimmings for glue medical and surgical film and fabric
substrates.
Glue, fodder, fertilizers.
3. Machine offal for glue
4. Shavings, Leatherboard, non-wovens,
leather Trimmings synthetic leatherlike materials, chemical
auxiliaries, fodder, fertilizers.
302
Safety, environmental protection
Percentage of effluents obtained in various processes
(Calculated on total waste water in normal working method)
Soaking, liming, rinsing ca. 30 – 40
Deliming, bating, rinsing ca. 15 – 20
Pickling, chrome tanning ca. 5 –10
Vegetable-synthetic tanning ca. 20 – 25
Neutralizing, dyeing, fatliquoring ca. 15 – 20
Samming, pasting, cleaning ca. 2– 7
General waste water ca. 2– 5
Regulations concerning substances contained in effluents from
tanneries
– Requirements and treatments –
The regulations governing the quality of effluents discharged from tanne-
ries differ from one country to another. The restrictions are more or less
stringent, depending on the local conditions and whether the effluents
are discharged into a main drain direct or indirect, i.e. first into a public
waste water or central treating plant. Samples of the effluents for testing
are taken at the point at which the effluents are discharged into the
public sewer, or from the main drain.
The following table offers methods of adjusting the most important efflu-
ent parameters.
303
Safety, environmental protection
Regulations concerning direct or indirect discharge of effluents:
Measure
Temperature Adjust temperature.
pH value If necessary, add acid or alkali for neutralization.
Settling substances Cut down the amount by mechanical separa-
tion, addition of flocculating agents (aluminium
or iron sulfates or chlorides) and addition of
sedimentation agents (Sedipur types).
Substances extract- Removal of fats and oils by separator.
able with petroleum
ether (biologically
not degradable)
Toxic substances Biological degradation must not be disturbed
by toxic organic compounds. (A 1:5 dilution of
the effluent must not have a toxic effect in the
fish test.)
COD / BOD Cut down oxygen demand by flocculation, sedi-
mentation and biological degradation. Omit use
of oxygen-demanding substances.
Ammonia/nitrogen Use hair saving liming processes and nitrogen-
free products (particularly in deliming).
Aluminium Flocculate out of residual and wash liquors.
Chromium-III- Flocculate chromium salts out of residual and
compounds rinsing liquors; recirculate residual liquors; fix
chromium salts in the leather; use chrome tan-
ning process with extensive exhaustion of resi-
dual liquors.
Do not use chromium-VI- compounds; use no
Chromium-VI-
compounds oxidizing agents in beamhouse processes.
Use products with lowest content of free
Phenol
phenol.
304
Safety, environmental protection
Sulfide Use sulfide-free liming chemicals; use catalytic
oxidizing agents (manganese sulfate, manga-
nese chloride); recirculate residual liming
liquors. Recover sulfides by acidifying residual
liquors and running all of the hydrogen sulfide
formed into caustic soda.
Sulfite Use less sulfite-containing products.
Sulfate Use products with lower sulfate content in deli-
ming or in the pickle Picaltal in place of sulfuric
acid.
AOX Use products that do not contain organic
halogen compounds.
305
Safety, environmental protection
Airborne emissions
Airborne emissions are in many countries less strictly regulated than
discharges in waste water. In Germany airborne emissions are covered
by the “Technische Anleitung zur Reinhaltung der Luft” (TA Luft).
All countries have their own classification and limitation of hazardous
substances that are released to air. No specific limits exist for the leather
industry.
Emissions to air in the leather industry
Process Substance Avoidance
Wet end Dust • dedusted products
• liquid products
Deliming/Bating H 2S • see below
Pretanning/Tanning/ Glutaraldehyde • automatic dosage systems
Retanning
• modified Glutaraldehyde with
lower vapour pressure
(e.g. Relugan GTP)
Finishing VOC • low VOC-systems
• water-based systems
306
Safety, environmental protection
Hydrogen sulfide hazards in the leather industry
The use of sodium sulfide, sodium hydro sulfide and organic sulfides for
the unhairing process is likely to cause development of hydrogen sulfide
in tanneries.
Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is strongly poisonous. It has an irritating effect on
the mucous membranes and moreover paralyses cell respiration and thus
damages the nerves. Poisoning by this gas results in inflammation of the
eyes, bronchial catarrh and inflammation of the lungs. Higher concentra-
tions cause cramps, unconsciousness and eventually death due to respi-
ratory paralysis.
Even at concentrations as low as 700 p.p.m. H2S in the inhaled air, acute
lethal poisoning may occur after a short time. In addition, hydrogen sul-
fide gas forms explosive mixtures with the air (explosion limits:
4.3 – 45.5 % by volume, ignition temperature 270 °C). Therefore, it is
absolutely necessary to avoid ignition sources.
Measures to reduce the likelihood of gas development and
contacting H2S
1. Use low sulfide or sulfide free liming methods.
2. Wash limed pelts several times in long floats (200 %) to reduce sulfide
content of pelts.
3. Incorporate sodium bisulfite in deliming to oxidize H2S.
4. Wash thoroughly after deliming and bating.
5. Installation of ventilation and exhaust devices on drums and in
workrooms.
6. Wear a protective mask when working at the drum.
7. Measure sodium sulfide concentration at the workplace and at the
door of drums with the Dräger test tube for sodium sulfide 5/b. (Sup-
plier: Drägerwerk AG, Lübeck)
307
Safety, environmental protection
Some basic terms used in environmental protection
Activated sludge Process for biological waste water treatment.
process The waste water is condensed to slimy flakes
by extensive circulation and airing in a basin
with addition of aerobic microbes (activated
sludge), and the contaminations are biologically
degraded by the micro-organisms.
Adaptation In biology, this term means the adjustment of
organisms to an unknown substance or to envi-
ronmental conditions (e.g. for micro-organisms,
the possibility of degrading a hitherto unutiliza-
ble substance).
AOX Adsorbable organically bound halogen
Biochemical oxygen Measure of the content of organic substances
demand (BOD) in the waste water which are biologically degra-
dable with consumption of oxygen. Usually indi-
cated as 5-day biochemical oxygen demand
(BOD5). This is the amount of oxygen in milli-
grams per litre (mg O2/l) that is consumed by
micro-organisms in 5 days at 20 °C for oxida-
tion of the biologically degradable substances
contained in the water. It is determined by
a. the dilution method
b. the vibration method (respirometric method).
BSB Biologischer Sauerstoffbedarf, the German term
for BOD.
Chemical oxygen System of measuring the content of organic
demand (COD) impurities with oxidizing agents. The consump-
tion of oxygen in milligrams per litre (mg O2/l) is
indicated. Determined with
a. potassium permanganate or with
b. potassium dichromate.
308
Safety, environmental protection
Controlled Controlled and supervised dumping site for
dumping site waste materials.
CSB Chemischer Sauerstoffbedarf, the German term
for COD.
Degradability The degree of biological or chemical decompo-
sition of organic compounds based mainly on
metabolism processes of micro-organisms.
Denitrification The reduction of nitrates or nitrites to nitrogen
oxides, ammonia, and free nitrogen by certain
micro-organisms.
Dust Solid aerosol with a particle size smaller than
200 x 10-3 mm. We distinguish between metal-
lic, mineral, vegetable, animal, artificial, and
radioactive dust according to its origin. Dust
forms an essential part of air pollution (emissi-
ons, immissions).
Einwohnergleichwert The number of human beings producing a daily
amount of waste water whose BOD5 corre-
(EWG)
sponds to the daily production of waste water
in industry (54 g BOD5 a day = 1 EWG).
Emissions The gaseous, liquid, or solid substances emit-
ted by a plant or a technical process into the
atmosphere; noise, vibrations, light rays, heat
and radioactive effects, as well as liquid and
solid substances that penetrate, not into the
atmosphere, but into other environments.
Immission Action of foreign substances in the air, noises or
vibrations on human beings, animals, or plants.
Immission value Maximum value laid down for immissions.
(I value) The immission values are a standardized
system laid down in TA Air.
I value 1: long-time action value
I value 2: short-time action value.
309
Safety, environmental protection
Instigator responsi- Principle applying to all producers and consu-
bility principle mers in all environmental connections: the insti-
gator responsible must bear the costs resulting
from his pollution-causing behaviour.
Load value Term used in waste water levy law. Known in
the most recent version as Schadeinheit (SE) or
damage unit.
Main drain Drain into which waste water from dewatering
operations is discharged direct.
Nitrification Microbial oxidation of ammonia to nitrate.
Pollution Common term for environmental contamination.
Recycling Re-use of end, intermediate, or by-products
obtained in industrial production processes in a
subsequent production cycle.
Settling basin Basin in which a sedimentation of the settling
substances is effected by slowing down the
flow rate.
Settling substances Solids that settle in water within a certain time.
Suspended matter Solids that are suspended in water (or in some
other medium) because they have the same, or
almost the same, density.
TA Abbreviation for Technische Anleitung, admini-
strative regulations issued by the government of
the Federal Republic of Germany regarding
plants requiring official approval. Legally based
on the German Federal Immission Protection
Law.
310
Safety, environmental protection
TOC Total organic carbon, name of a newer COD
determination method. Based on complete
combustion of organic carbon compounds
3.67 mg CO2
1 mg C + 2.67 mg O2
TOD Total oxygen demand.
Determined by complete thermal conversion in
enclosed system. Difference between O2 con-
tent of the air before and after combustion.
VOC Volatile organic carbon.
Waste water According to DIN 4045 “water that has chan-
ged, and in particular become contaminated,
after household or industrial use and then
discharged; also water from precipitations flo-
wing into sewage systems”.
311
312 Measures and weights
Standard physical units
SI base units
(SI = Système International d’Unités)
Basic quantity SI base unit
Name Symbol
Length metre m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Electric current ampere A
Temperature (thermodynamic
or temperature difference) kelvin K
Amount of substance mole mol
Luminous intensity candela cd
Definition of SI base units
• metre The metre is the length equal to 1 650 763.73 wavelength
in vacuum of the radiation corresponding to the transition
between the levels 2 p10 and 5 d5 of the krypton-86 atom.
• kilogram The kilogram is the unit of mass; it is equal to the mass of
the international prototype of the kilogram.
• second The second is the duration of 9 192 631 770 periods of
the radiation corresponding to the transition between the
two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium-
133 atom.
• ampere The ampere is that constant current which, if maintained
in two straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of
negligible circular cross-section, and placed one metre
apart in vacuum, would produce between these conduc-
tors a force equal to 2 · 10-7 newton per metre of length.
• kelvin The kelvin, unit of thermodynamic temperature, is the
fraction 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of
the triple point of water.
313
Measures and weights
• mole The mole is the amount of substance of a system which
contains as many elementary entities as there are atoms
in 0.012 kilogram of carbon 12. When the mole is used,
the elementary entities must be specified and may be
atoms, molecules, ions, electrons, other particles, or spe-
cified groups of particles.
• candela The candela is the luminous intensity, in the perpendicular
direction, of a black body at the temperature of freezing
platinum under a pressure of 101 325 newton per sqaure
metre.
Decimal multiples and sub-multiples of SI units
(Internationally adopted prefixes)
Factor by which the Prefix Symbol
unit is multiplied
10-18 atto a
10-15 femto f
10-12 piko p
10-9 nano n
10-6 micro μ
10-3 milli m
10-2 centi c
10-1 deci d
10 deca da
102 hecto h
103 kilo k
106 mega M
109 giga G
1012 tera T
1015 peta P
1018 exa E
314
Measures and weights
SI derived units with special names and symbols
Quantity SI unit Relationship
Name Symbol
Plane angle radian rad 1 rad = 1 m/m
= 1 m2/m2
Solid angle stera- sr 1 sr
dian
Frequency of a hertz Hz 1 Hz = 1/s
periodic
occurence
Activity of a bec- Bq 1 Bq = 1/s
radioactive querel
substance
= 1 kg · m/s2
Force newton N 1N
1 Pa = 1 N/m2 = 1 kg/m · s2
Pressure, pascal Pa
mechanical stress
= 1 N · m = 1 kg · m2/s2
Energy, work, joule J 1J
quantity of heat = 1 Ws
Power, watt W 1 W = 1 J/s = 1 N · m/s
heat flow = 1 VA
1 Gy = 1 J/kg = 1 m2/s2
Energy dosage grey Gy
Electric charge, coulomb C 1C =1A·s
quantity of
electricity
Electric potential, volt V 1V = 1 J/C = 1 W/A
potential differen-
ces, electro-
motive force
315
Measures and weights
Quantity SI unit Relationship
Name Symbol
Electric farad F 1F = 1 C/V = 1 A · s/V
capacitance
Electric ohm 1 = 1 V/A = 1/S
resistance
Electric siemens S 1S = 1/ = 1 A/V
conductance
Magnetic flux weber Wb 1 Wb = 1 V · s
= 1 Wb/m2
Magnetic flux tesla T 1T
density,
magnetic
induction
Inductance, henry H 1H = 1 Wb/A = 1 V · s/A
magnetic
conductance
Celsius degree °C *
temperature Celsius
Luminous flux lumen lm 1 lm = 1 cd · sr
= 1 lm/m2
Illuminance lux lx 1 lx
The SI derived units are expressed in terms of base units, either as a
power of the base unit or as a compound unit formed by multiplication of
two or more units.
Example: m2 for area; kg · m/s2 for force.
The SI derived units form a coherent system together with the base units
and supplementary units. They include the multiples and submultiples of
the base unit obtained by attaching a prefix.
Example: 1 J = 1 kg (m/s)2 = 1 N m = · 1 W s for work.
* The Celsius temperature t is equal to the difference t = T – T0 between
two thermodynamic temperatures T and T 0 where T0 = 273.15 K.
316
Measures and weights
Units outside the SI with special names and symbols
Quantity SI unit Relationship
Name Symbol
Plane angle full ** 1 full angle = 2 rad
angle
gon gon 1 gon = ( /200) rad = 90°/100
degree °* 1° = ( /180) rad
minute '* 1' = (1/60)° = ( /10800) rad
second "* 1" = (1/60)' = ( /648000) rad
Refractive power dioptre dpt** 1 dpt** = 1/m
of optical systems
1 a = 100 m2
Area of ground are a
and floor
1 ha = 104 m2
sections hectare ha
1 l = 1 dm3 = 10-3 m3
Volume litre l
Mass tonne t 1 t = 1000 kg
1 u = 1.66054 · 10-27 kg
Mass in nuclear atomic u**
physics mass
unit
1 Kt = 0.2 · 10-3 kg = 0.2 g
Mass of precious metric Kt**
stones carat
317
Measures and weights
Quantity SI unit Relationship
Name Symbol
1 tex = 10-6 kg/m = 1 g/km
Linear textile fibres tex tex
density and yarns
degree Ø*
Time minute min* 1 min = 60 s
hour h* 1h = 60 min = 3600 s
day d* 1d = 24 h = 86 400 s
common a* 1a = 365 d = 8760 h
year
1 bar = 105 Pa = 105 N/m2
Pressure liquids, gases, bar bar
steams
1 eV = 1.60218 · 10-19 J
Energy nuclear electron eV
physics volt
Units outside the SI are all units derived from the base units with a factor
deviating from 1 (see above table under relationship).
Exceptions: dioptre (1/m), although coherent, not declared SI unit.
kilogram (kg) although with decimal prefix, the kilogram (kg)
is not a unit outside the SI, because it is a
base unit.
** without prefix
** not internationally standardized
318
Measures and weights
Definitions of various derived units
Quantity Symbol Definition
Force N The newton is the force which, applied to the
mass of 1 kilogram, gives it an acceleration of
1 m/s2. The hitherto used kilogram-force is
the force of 1 kg mass on a gravitational
basis (standard acceleration).
g = 9.80665 m/s2
Pressure Pa The pascal is the pressure produced by a
force of 1 N applied, uniformly distributed,
over an area of 1 m2.
1 bar = 105 Pa = 105 N/m2
bar
N/mm2 One N/mm2 is the stress exerted by a
Mechanical
stress force of 1 N from a material cross-section of
1 mm2.
Dynamic Pa · s The pascal second is equal to the dynamic
viscosity viscosity of a homogeneous fluid in which,
two layers 1 m apart, the top layer is moving
parallel to the bottom layer at a velocity of
1 m/s, and a shearing stress of 1 Pa is requi-
red to maintain this motion.
m2/s The square metre/second is equal to the
Kinematic
viscosity kinematic viscosity of a homogeneous fluid of
1 Pa · s and 1 kg/m3 density.
Energy, J The joule is the work done when the point of
work, application of a force of 1 N is displaced
quantity of heat through a distance of 1 m in the direction of
the force.
Power W The watt is equal to 1 J per second.
319
Measures and weights
Conversion tables
Units of pressure
Pa kPa MPa bar
N/mm2
(1 N/m2 =) 10-3 10-6 10-5
1 Pa = 1
103 10-3 10-2
1 kPa = 1
(1 N/mm2 =) 106 103 101
1 MPa = 1
105 102 10-1
(0.1 MPa =) 1 bar = 1
Units of mechanical stress
N/mm2
Pa
(1 N/m2 =) 10-6
1 Pa = 1
1 N/mm2 106
(1 MPa =) = 1
Units of energy, work quantity of heat
J kJ kWh
10-3 2.78 · 10-7
(= 1 Nm) 1 J = 1 Ws = 1
103 2.78 · 10-4
1 kJ = 1
3.60 · 106 3.60 · 103
1 kWh = 1
Units of power, energy flow, heat flow
W kW
10-3
(= 1 Nm/s = 1 J/s 1W = 1
103
1 kW = 1
320
Measures and weights
Conversion of some common units to equivalent values in SI units
Quantity Exact equivalent Rough approximation
(max. 2 % deviation)
Force 1 kp = 9.80665 N
1p = 0.00980665 N 1 kp 10 N
= 10-5 N
1 dyn
1 at = 1kp/cm2 = 0.980665 bar
Pressure 1 at 1 bar
1 atm = 1.01325 bar
1 torr = 1 mm Hg 1 torr 1.33 mbar
= 1.33322 mbar
1 mWS = 0.0980665 bar 1 mm WS 0.1 mbar
1 mm WS = 0.0980665 mbar
1 kp/mm2 = 9.80665 N/mm2 1 kp/mm2 10 N/mm2
Mechanical
1 kp/cm2 = 0.980665 N/mm2
stress
1 cP = 1 mm2/s
Dynamic 1 P (poise)= 0.1 Pa · s
Viscosity 1 cP = 1 mPa · s
1 St (stokes) = 10 -4 m2/s 1 cSt = 1 mm2/s
Kinematic
Viscosity
Energy, 1 kpm = 9.80665 J 1 kpm 10 J
10-7 J
work, 1 erg =
quantity 1 kcal = 4.1840 kJ 1 kcal 4.2 kJ
of heat 1 kWh = 3600 kJ
Power 1 kpm/s = 9.80665 W 1 kpm/s 10 W
1 PS = 735.49875 W 1 PS 0.74 kW
1 kcal/h = 1.1630 W 1 kcal/h 1.16 W
321
Measures and weights
Units of length
Metric units of length
SI base unit = metre (m)
1 kilometre (km) = 10 hectometres (hm) = 1000 metres (m)
1 metre (m) = 10 decimetres (dm) = 100 centimetres (cm)
1 centimetre (cm) = 10 millimetres (mm)
1 millimetre (mm) = 1000 micrometres (μm)
Other units of length
1 German land mile = 7500 m
1 nautical mile = 1852 m
1 geographical mile = 7421.6 m
1 Faden (fathom) = 1.85 m
British and US units of length
1 yard (yd) = 0.9144 m
1 foot (ft) = 30.48 cm
1 inch (in) = 2.54 cm
1 fathom = 182.9 cm
1 London mile = 1524 m
1 mile (statute) = 1609 m
1 nautical mile = 1852 m
Conversion factors:
1 m = 1.0936 yd = 3.28 ft = 39.37 in
1 mm = 0.03937 in
322
Measures and weights
Conversion table – metres and yards
yards metres (m)
yards metres (m)
1.094 = 1 = 0.91438
2.187 = 2 = 1.8288
3.281 = 3 = 2.7432
4.374 = 4 = 3.6576
5.468 = 5 = 4.5720
6.562 = 6 = 5.4864
7.655 = 7 = 6.4008
8.749 = 8 = 7.3152
9.843 = 9 = 8.2296
10.936 = 10 = 9.144
16.404 = 15 = 13.716
21.873 = 20 = 18.288
27.341 = 25 = 22.860
32.809 = 30 = 27.432
38.277 = 35 = 32.004
43.745 = 40 = 36.576
49.213 = 45 = 41.148
54.682 = 50 = 45.720
60.150 = 55 = 50.292
65.618 = 60 = 54.864
71.086 = 65 = 59.436
76.554 = 70 = 64.008
82.022 = 75 = 68.580
87.491 = 80 = 73.152
92.959 = 85 = 77.724
98.427 = 90 = 82.296
103.895 = 95 = 86.868
109.363 = 100 = 91.44
218.727 = 200 = 182.88
328.090 = 300 = 274.32
437.453 = 400 = 365.76
546.816 = 500 = 457.20
323
Measures and weights
Conversion table – millimetres to inches
mm inches mm inches
1 = 0.03937 31 = 1.22047
2 = 0.07874 32 = 1.25984
3 = 0.11811 33 = 1.29921
4 = 0.15748 34 = 1.33858
5 = 0.19685 35 = 1.37795
6 = 0.23622 36 = 1.41732
7 = 0.27559 37 = 1.45669
8 = 0.31496 38 = 1.49606
9 = 0.35433 39 = 1.53543
10 = 0.39370 40 = 1.57480
11 = 0.43307 41 = 1.61417
12 = 0.47244 42 = 1.65354
13 = 0.51181 43 = 1.69291
14 = 0.55118 44 = 1.73228
15 = 0.59055 45 = 1.77165
16 = 0.62992 46 = 1.81102
17 = 0.66929 47 = 1.85039
18 = 0.70866 48 = 1.88976
19 = 0.74803 49 = 1.92913
20 = 0.78740 50 = 1.96850
21 = 0.82677 55 = 2.16535
22 = 0.86614 60 = 2.36220
23 = 0.90551 65 = 2.55905
24 = 0.94488 70 = 2.75590
25 = 0.98425 75 = 2.95275
26 = 1.02362 80 = 3.14960
27 = 1.06299 85 = 3.34645
28 = 1.10236 90 = 3.54330
29 = 1.14173 95 = 3.74015
30 = 1.18110 100 = 3.93700
324
Measures and weights
Conversion table – millimetres to inches and leather substance in
ounces
Inch mm Inch mm
vulgar Decimal vulgar Decimal
fraction fraction Ounces fraction fraction Ounces
1/64 0.016 1 0.397 33/64 0.516 33 13.097
1/32 0.031 2 0.794 17/32 0.531 34 13.494
3/64 0.047 3 1.191 35/64 0.547 35 13.890
1/16 0.063 4 1.587 9/16 0.563 36 14.287
5/64 0.078 5 1.984 37/64 0.578 37 14.684
3/32 0.094 6 2.381 19/32 0.594 38 15.081
7/64 0.109 7 2.778 39/64 0.609 39 15.478
1/8 0.125 8 3.175 5/8 0.625 40 15.875
9/64 0.141 9 3.572 41/64 0.641 41 16.272
5/32 0.156 10 3.969 21/32 0.656 42 16.669
11/64 0.172 11 4.366 43/64 0.672 43 17.066
3/16 0.188 12 4.723 11/16 0.688 44 17.462
13/64 0.203 13 5.159 45/64 0.703 45 17.859
7/32 0.219 14 5.556 23/64 0.719 46 18.256
15/64 0.234 15 5.953 47/64 0.734 47 18.653
1/4 0.250 16 6.350 3/4 0.750 48 19.050
17/64 0.266 17 6.747 49/64 0.766 49 19.447
9/32 0.281 18 7.144 25/32 0.781 50 19.844
19/64 0.297 19 7.541 51/64 0.797 51 20.241
5/16 0.313 20 7.937 13/16 0.813 52 20.638
21/64 0.328 21 8.334 53/64 0.828 53 21.034
11/32 0.344 22 8.731 27/32 0.844 54 21.431
23/64 0.359 23 9.128 55/64 0.859 55 21.828
3/8 0.375 24 9.525 7/8 0.875 56 22.225
25/64 0.391 25 9.922 57/64 0.891 57 22.622
13/32 0.406 26 10.319 29/32 0.906 58 23.018
27/64 0.422 27 10.716 59/64 0.922 59 23.416
7/16 0.438 28 11.112 15/16 0.938 60 23.812
29/64 0.453 29 11.509 61/64 0.953 61 24.209
15/32 0.469 30 11.906 31/32 0.969 62 24.606
31/64 0.484 31 12.303 63/64 0.984 63 25.003
1/2 0.500 32 12.700 1 1.000 64 25.400
325
Measures and weights
Units of area
Metric units of area
square kilometre (km2)
1 = 100 hectares (ha) = 10 000 ares (a)
ares (a) = 10 000 square metres (m2)
1 hectare (ha) = 100
square metre (m2) square decimetres (dm2)
= 100
1
square decimetre (dm2) square centimetres (cm2)
= 100
1
square centimetre (cm2) square millimetres (mm2)
= 100
1
Other units of area
2256.738255 km2
1 German square mile =
2553.1668 m2
1 Morgen =
2638.2917 m2
1 Viertel =
2220.0985 m2
1 Quadratfuß =
British and US units of area
6.452 cm2
1 square inch (sq.in) =
929 cm2 = 9.29 dm2
1 square foot (sq.ft.) =
8361 cm2 = 83.61 dm2
1 square yard (sq.yd.) =
4047 m2
1 acre (A) =
2.588 km2
1 square mile =
Conversion factors for units of area
sq. sq. sq.
cm2 m2
inch foot yard acre
1 square inch 1 – – – 6.452 –
1 square foot 144 1 0.1111 – 929 0.0929
1 square yard 1296 9 1 – 8361 0.8361
1 acre – 43560 4840 1 – 4047
cm2 0.155 – – – 1 0.0001
1
m2
1 1550 10.76 1.196 – 10000 1
326
Measures and weights
Conversion table – square metres to square feet
Conversion factor: 1 m2 = 10.764 sq. ft.
m2 m2 m2
sq. ft. sq. ft. sq. ft.
0.01 = 0.108 0.37 = 3.982 0.73 = 7.858
0.02 = 0.215 0.38 = 4.090 0.74 = 7.965
0.03 = 0.323 0.39 = 4.197 0.75 = 8.073
0.04 = 0.430 0.40 = 4.306 0.76 = 8.181
0.05 = 0.538 0.41 = 4.414 0.77 = 8.288
0.06 = 0.646 0.42 = 4.521 0.78 = 8.396
0.07 = 0.753 0.43 = 4.629 0.79 = 8.503
0.08 = 0.861 0.44 = 4.736 0.80 = 8.611
0.09 = 0.968 0.45 = 4.844 0.81 = 8.719
0.10 = 1.076 0.46 = 4.952 0.82 = 8.826
0.11 = 1.184 0.47 = 5.059 0.83 = 8.934
0.12 = 1.291 0.48 = 5.167 0.84 = 9.041
0.13 = 1.399 0.49 = 5.274 0.85 = 9.149
0.14 = 1.509 0.50 = 5.382 0.86 = 9.257
0.15 = 1.614 0.51 = 5.490 0.87 = 9.364
0.16 = 1.722 0.52 = 5.597 0.88 = 9.472
0.17 = 1.829 0.53 = 5.705 0.89 = 9.579
0.18 = 1.937 0.54 = 5.812 0.90 = 9.688
0.19 = 2.044 0.55 = 5.920 0.91 = 9.796
0.20 = 2.153 0.56 = 6.028 0.92 = 9.903
0.21 = 2.261 0.57 = 6.135 0.93 = 10.011
0.22 = 2.368 0.58 = 6.243 0.94 = 10.118
0.23 = 2.467 0.59 = 6.350 0.95 = 10.226
0.24 = 2.583 0.60 = 6.459 0.96 = 10.334
0.25 = 2.691 0.61 = 6.567 0.97 = 10.441
0.26 = 2.799 0.62 = 6.674 0.98 = 10.549
0.27 = 2.906 0.63 = 6.782 0.99 = 10.656
0.28 = 3.014 0.64 = 6.889 1.00 = 10.764
0.29 = 3.121 0.65 = 6.997 2.00 = 21.529
0.30 = 3.229 0.66 = 7.105 5.00 = 53.821
0.31 = 3.337 0.67 = 7.212 10.00 = 107.643
0.32 = 3.444 0.68 = 7.320 20.00 = 215.285
0.33 = 3.552 0.69 = 7.427 30.00 = 322.928
0.34 = 3.659 0.70 = 7.535 40.00 = 430.571
0.35 = 3.767 0.71 = 7.643 50.00 = 538.213
0.36 = 3.875 0.72 = 7.750 100.00 = 1076.426
327
Measures and weights
Conversion table – square feet to square metres
Conversion factor: 1 sq. ft. = 0.0929 m2
sq. ft. m2 sq. ft. m2 m2
sq. ft.
1⁄ 8 = 0.0116 33 = 3.0657 69 = 6.4101
1⁄ 4 = 0.0219 34 = 3.1586 70 = 6.5030
1⁄ 2 = 0.0464 35 = 3.2515 71 = 6.5959
3⁄ 4 = 0.0696 36 = 3.3444 72 = 6.6888
1= 0.0929 37 = 3.4373 73 = 6.7817
2= 0.1858 38 = 3.5302 74 = 6.8746
3= 0.2787 39 = 3.6231 75 = 6.9675
4= 0.3716 40 = 3.7160 76 = 7.0604
5= 0.4645 41 = 3.8039 77 = 7.1533
6= 0.5574 42 = 3.9018 78 = 7.2462
7= 0.6503 43 = 3.9947 79 = 7.3391
8= 0.7432 44 = 4.0876 80 = 7.4320
9= 0.8361 45 = 4.1805 81 = 7.5249
10 = 0.9290 46 = 4.2734 82 = 7.6178
11 = 1.0219 47 = 4.3663 83 = 7.7107
12 = 1.1148 48 = 4.4592 84 = 7.8036
13 = 1.2077 49 = 4.5521 85 = 7.8965
14 = 1.3006 50 = 4.6450 86 = 7.9894
15 = 1.3935 51 = 4.7379 87 = 8.0823
16 = 1.4864 52 = 4.8308 88 = 8.1752
17 = 1.5793 53 = 4.9237 89 = 8.2681
18 = 1.6722 54 = 5.0166 90 = 8.3610
19 = 1.7651 55 = 5.1095 91 = 8.4539
20 = 1.8580 56 = 5.2024 92 = 8.5468
21 = 1.9509 57 = 5.2953 93 = 8.6397
22 = 2.0438 58 = 5.3882 94 = 8.7326
23 = 2.1367 59 = 5.4811 95 = 8.8255
24 = 2.2296 60 = 5.5740 96 = 8.9184
25 = 2.3225 61 = 5.6669 97 = 9.0113
26 = 2.4154 62 = 5.7598 98 = 9.1042
27 = 2.5083 63 = 5.8527 99 = 9.1971
28 = 2.6012 64 = 5.9456 100 = 9.2903
29 = 2.6941 65 = 6.0385 200 = 18.5806
30 = 2.7870 66 = 6.1314 300 = 27.8709
31 = 2.8799 67 = 6.2243 400 = 37.1612
32 = 2.9728 68 = 6.3172 500 = 46.4515
328
Measures and weights
Units of volume
Metric units of volume and capacity
1 cubic metre (m3) = 1000 cubic decimetres (dm3)
1 cubic decimetre (dm3) = 1000 cubic centimetres (cm3)
1 cubic centimentre (cm3) = 1000 cubic millimetres (mm3)
= 1 cubic decimetre (dm 3)
1 litre ( l )
1 hecto litre (hl) = 100 litres ( l ) = 1000 decilitres (dl)
1 litre ( l ) = 10 decilitres (dl) = 1000 millilitres (ml)
1 decilitre (dl) = 100 millilitres (ml)
Conversion factors for units of volume and capacity
cm3 dm3
cubic cubic cubic gallon
inch foot yard (US) (l)
1 cubic inch 1 – – – 16.39 0.0164
1 cubic foot 1728 1 0.0369 7.481 – 28.32
1 cubic yard 46656 27 1 202 – 746.6
1 gallon (US) 231 0.1337 – 1 3785 3.785
cm3 0.061 – – – 1 0.001
1
dm3
1 61.02 0.035 – 0.2642 1000 1
329
Measures and weights
British and US units of volume and capacity
1 cubic yard (yd3 or cu.yd.) 0.764553 m3 = 764.6 dm3 ( l )
=
1 cubic foot (ft3 or cu.ft.) 28.317 dm3
=
1 cubic inch (in3 or cu.in.) 16.387 cm3
=
1 liquid quarter (liq.quarter) Brit. = 289.5 l
1 liquid quarter (liq.quarter) US = 281.92 l
1 quart (qt) Brit. = 2 pints = 1.136 l
1 quart (qt) US = 2 pints = 0.946 l
1 pint (pt) Brit. = 4 gills = 0.568 l
1 pint (pt) US = 4 gills = 0.473 l
= 142 cm3 = 0.568 l
1 gill (Brit.)
= 118 cm3 = 0.473 l
1 gill (US)
1 gallon (Brit.) = 8 pints = 4.5461 l
1 gallon (US liquid) = 3.7852 l
1 gallon (grain) US = 4.4046 l
1 bushel (bu) US = 35.242 l
1 bushel (bu) Brit. = 8 gallons = 36.368 l
1 barrel (Brit.) = 36 gallons = 1.635 hl
1 barrel (Petrol) US = 42 gallons = 1.5898 hl
1 barrel (Beer) US = 31 gallons = 1.173 hl
2.832 m3 = 2832 l
1 register ton = 100 cu. ft. =
330
Measures and weights
Conversion table – litres and gallons (Brit. and US)
gallons litres gallons litres
(Brit.) (US)
gallons litres gallons litres
(Brit.) (US)
0.2200 = 1 = 4.5461 0.2642 = 1 = 3.7852
0.4399 = 2 = 9.0922 0.5283 = 2 = 7.5704
0.6599 = 3 = 13.6383 0.7925 = 3 = 11.3556
0.8799 = 4 = 18.1844 1.0567 = 4 = 15.1408
1.0998 = 5 = 22.7305 1.3209 = 5 = 18.9260
1.3198 = 6 = 27.2766 1.5850 = 6 = 22.7112
1.5398 = 7 = 31.8227 1.8492 = 7 = 26.4964
1.7598 = 8 = 36.3688 2.1134 = 8 = 30.2816
1.9797 = 9 = 40.9149 2.3776 = 9 = 34.0668
2.1997 = 10 = 45.4610 2.6419 = 10 = 37.8520
2.4197 = 11 = 50.0071 2.9060 = 11 = 41.6372
2.6396 = 12 = 54.5532 3.1702 = 12 = 45.4224
2.8596 = 13 = 59.0993 3.4344 = 13 = 49.2076
3.0796 = 14 = 63.6454 3.6986 = 14 = 52.9928
3.2995 = 15 = 68.1915 3.9628 = 15 = 56.7780
3.5195 = 16 = 72.7376 4.2269 = 16 = 60.5632
3.7395 = 17 = 77.2837 4.4911 = 17 = 64.3484
3.9594 = 18 = 81.8298 4.7553 = 18 = 68.1336
4.1794 = 19 = 86.3759 5.0195 = 19 = 71.9188
4.3994 = 20 = 90.9220 5.2837 = 20 = 75.7040
4.6194 = 21 = 95.4681 5.5479 = 21 = 79.4892
4.8394 = 22 = 100.0142 5.8121 = 22 = 83.2744
5.0593 = 23 = 104.5603 6.0763 = 23 = 87.0596
5.2793 = 24 = 109.1064 6.3405 = 24 = 90.8448
5.4993 = 25 = 113.6525 6.6047 = 25 = 94.6300
5.7192 = 26 = 118.1986 6.8689 = 26 = 98.4152
5.9392 = 27 = 122.7447 7.1331 = 27 = 102.2004
6.1592 = 28 = 127.2908 7.3973 = 28 = 105.9856
6.3791 = 29 = 131.8369 7.6615 = 29 = 109.7708
6.5991 = 30 = 136.3830 7.9256 = 30 = 113.5560
331
Measures and weights
gallons litres gallons litres
(Brit.) (US)
gallons litres gallons litres
(Brit.) (US)
6.8191 = 31 = 140.9291 8.1898 = 31 = 117.3412
7.0391 = 32 = 145.4752 8.4540 = 32 = 121.1264
7.2591 = 33 = 150.0213 8.7182 = 33 = 124.9116
7.4790 = 34 = 154.5674 8.9824 = 34 = 128.6968
7.6990 = 35 = 159.1135 9.2466 = 35 = 132.4820
7.9190 = 36 = 163.6596 9.5108 = 36 = 136.2672
8.1389 = 37 = 168.2057 9.7750 = 37 = 140.0524
8.3589 = 38 = 172.7518 10.0392 = 38 = 143.8376
8.5789 = 39 = 177.2979 10.3034 = 39 = 147.6228
8.7988 = 40 = 181.8440 10.5674 = 40 = 151.4080
9.0188 = 41 = 186.3901 10.8316 = 41 = 155.1932
9.2388 = 42 = 190.9362 11.0958 = 42 = 158.9784
9.4587 = 43 = 195.4823 11.3600 = 43 = 162.7636
9.6787 = 44 = 200.0284 11.6242 = 44 = 166.5488
9.8986 = 45 = 204.5745 11.8884 = 45 = 170.3340
10.1186 = 46 = 209.1206 12.1526 = 46 = 174.1192
10.3385 = 47 = 213.6667 12.4168 = 47 = 177.9044
10.5585 = 48 = 218.2128 12.6810 = 48 = 181.6896
10.7784 = 49 = 222.7589 12.9452 = 49 = 185.4748
10.9984 = 50 = 227.3050 13.2093 = 50 = 189.2600
12.0982 = 55 = 250.0355 14.5302 = 55 = 208.1860
13.1980 = 60 = 272.7660 15.8511 = 60 = 227.1120
14.2978 = 65 = 295.4965 17.1720 = 65 = 246.0380
15.3976 = 70 = 318.2270 18.4929 = 70 = 264.9640
16.4974 = 75 = 340.9575 19.8138 = 75 = 283.8900
17.5972 = 80 = 363.6880 21.1347 = 80 = 302.8160
18.6970 = 85 = 386.4185 22.4556 = 85 = 321.7420
19.7968 = 90 = 409.1490 23.7765 = 90 = 340.6680
20.8966 = 95 = 431.8795 25.0974 = 95 = 359.5940
21.9969 = 100 = 454.6100 26.4188 = 100 = 378.5200
332
Measures and weights
Units of weight
Metric units of weights
SI base unit = kilogram (kg)
1 tonne (t) = 1000 kilograms (kg)
1 kilogram (kg) = 1000 grams (g)
1 gram (g) = 1000 milligrams (mg)
1 carat (metric) (k) = 0.2 gram (g) = 200 milligrams (mg)
British and US units of weight
1 grain (gr) = 64.8 mg
1 carat (for jewels) (ct) = 4 grains = 205.3 mg
1 ounce (oz) = 28.35 g
1 libre (lb) = 1 pound = 16 ounces = 453.6 g
1 pound (lb) = 1 libre = 16 ounces = 453.6 g
1 stone = 6.350 kg
1 quarter = 12.7 kg
1 short ton (ship tonnage) (shtn.) = 2000 pounds = 907.185 kg
1 long ton (ltn.) = 80 quarters = 1016 kg
Conversion factors for units of weight
lbs shtn. ltn. kg
1 pound 1 – – 0.454
1 short ton 2000 1 0.8929 907.9
1 long ton 2240 1.120 1 1016
1 kg 2.205 0.0011 0.00098 1
333
Measures and weights
Conversion table – kilograms (kg) and pounds (lbs)
Pounds kilograms (kg) Pounds kilograms (kg)
(lbs) Pounds (lbs) kg (Ibs) Pounds (lbs) kg
2.2046 = 1 = 0.453 68.3436 = 31 = 14.047
4.4093 = 2 = 0.906 70.5482 = 32 = 14.500
6.6139 = 3 = 1.359 72.7528 = 33 = 14.953
8.8185 = 4 = 1.812 74.9574 = 34 = 15.406
11.0232 = 5 = 2.265 77.1620 = 35 = 15.859
13.2278 = 6 = 2.719 79.3666 = 36 = 16.312
15.4324 = 7 = 3.172 81.5712 = 37 = 16.765
17.6371 = 8 = 3.625 83.7758 = 38 = 17.218
19.8417 = 9 = 4.078 85.9804 = 39 = 17.671
22.0463 = 10 = 4.531 88.1854 = 40 = 18.125
24.2510 = 11 = 4.984 90.3896 = 41 = 18.578
26.4556 = 12 = 5.437 92.5942 = 42 = 19.031
28.6602 = 13 = 5.890 94.7988 = 43 = 19.484
30.8649 = 14 = 6.343 97.0034 = 44 = 19.937
33.0695 = 15 = 6.796 99.2080 = 45 = 20.390
35.2741 = 16 = 7.249 101.4126 = 46 = 20.843
37.4788 = 17 = 7.702 103.6172 = 47 = 21.296
39.6835 = 18 = 8.155 105.8218 = 48 = 21.749
41.8880 = 19 = 8.608 108.0264 = 49 = 22.202
44.0927 = 20 = 9.062 110.2317 = 50 = 22.656
46.2973 = 21 = 9.515 121.2542 = 55 = 24.921
48.5019 = 22 = 9.968 132.2780 = 60 = 27.187
50.7065 = 23 = 10.421 143.3012 = 65 = 29.452
52.9111 = 24 = 10.874 154.3244 = 70 = 31.719
55.1157 = 25 = 11.327 165.3476 = 75 = 33.984
57.3203 = 26 = 11.780 176.3707 = 80 = 36.250
59.5249 = 27 = 12.233 187.3939 = 85 = 38.515
61.7295 = 28 = 12.686 198.4171 = 90 = 40.781
63.9341 = 29 = 13.139 209.4403 = 95 = 43.046
66.1390 = 30 = 13.594 220.4634 = 100 = 45.302
334
Measures and weights
Conversion table – grams (g) and ounces (oz)
Grams ounces (oz) ounces Grams kilograms (kg)
(g) Grams (g) (oz) (g) Pounds (Ibs) kg
28.35 = 1 = 0.0353 878.8 = 31 = 1.093
56.70 = 2 = 0.0706 907.2 = 32 = 1.129
85.05 = 3 = 0.1058 935.5 = 33 = 1.164
113.40 = 4 = 0.1411 963.9 = 34 = 1.199
141.74 = 5 = 0.1764 992.2 = 35 = 1.235
170.10 = 6 = 0.2116 1020.6 = 36 = 1.270
198.45 = 7 = 0.2469 1048.9 = 37 = 1.305
226.80 = 8 = 0.2822 1077.3 = 38 = 1.340
255.15 = 9 = 0.3174 1105.6 = 39 = 1.376
283.50 = 10 = 0.3527 1134.0 = 40 = 1.411
311.8 = 11 = 0.3880 1162.3 = 41 = 1.446
340.2 = 12 = 0.4232 1190.7 = 42 = 1.481
368.5 = 13 = 0.4585 1219.0 = 43 = 1.517
396.9 = 14 = 0.4938 1247.4 = 44 = 1.552
425.2 = 15 = 0.5291 1275.7 = 45 = 1.587
453.6 = 16 = 0.5642 1304.1 = 46 = 1.623
481.9 = 17 = 0.5997 1332.4 = 47 = 1.658
510.3 = 18 = 0.6349 1360.8 = 48 = 1.693
538.6 = 19 = 0.6702 1389.1 = 49 = 1.728
567.0 = 20 = 0.7054 1417.5 = 50 = 1.764
595.3 = 21 = 0.7407 1559 = 55 = 1.940
623.7 = 22 = 0.7760 1701 = 60 = 2.116
652.0 = 23 = 0.8113 1843 = 65 = 2.293
680.4 = 24 = 0.8465 1985 = 70 = 2.469
708.7 = 25 = 0.8818 2126 = 75 = 2.645
737.1 = 26 = 0.9171 2268 = 80 = 2.822
765.4 = 27 = 0.9523 2410 = 85 = 2.998
793.8 = 28 = 0.9876 2552 = 90 = 3.175
822.1 = 29 = 1.0229 2693 = 95 = 3.351
850.5 = 30 = 1.0581 2835 = 100 = 3.527
335
Measures and weights
Conversion tables – Imp./US units and SI units
Imp./US
SI Imp./US SI
unit
unit unit unit
Force
kg · m kg · m
= 2.248 · 10-1 lbf
1N=1 1 lbf = 4.448 = = 4.448 N
2
s2
s
Pressure
lbf
N lbf 3
= 1.450 · 10-4 2 1 2 = 1 psi = 6.89475 · 10 Pa
1 Pa = 1
m2 in
in
= 6.89475 · 10-2 bar
= 2.953 · 10-4 in Hg
= 4.015 · 10-3 in H2O
1 in Hg = 3.38638 · 103 Pa
lbf = 3.38638 · 10-2 bar
1 bar = 105 Pa = 1.450 · 101
in2 1 in H2O = 2.49089 · 102 Pa
= 2.953 · 101 in Hg = 2.49089 · 10-3 bar
= 4.015 · 102 in H2O
Mechanical stress
2 lbf lbf N
N -3
1 2 = 1.450 · 10 1 2 = 6.89475 · 10
in2 mm2
in
mm
Dynamic viscosity
lbf ·s
N ·s lbf ·s
= 2.089 · 102 2 1
1 Pa · s = 1 1 2 = 4.78802 · 10 Pa · s
2
ft
m ft
kg lb lb
= 6.72 · 10-1
1 1 = 1.488 Pa · s
m ·s ft ·s ft ·s
Kinematic viscosity
m2 ft2
ft2 2
-2 m
= 1.076 · 101
1 1 = 9.29 · 10
s s
s s
336
Measures and weights
Imp./US
SI Imp./US SI
unit
unit unit unit
Energy, work, quantity of heat
1 J = 1Ws = 1Nm = 7.376 · 10-1 ft lbf 1 ft lbf = 1.35582 J
= 9.478 · 10-1 Btu 1 Btu = 1.05506 kJ
1 kJ
Power, heat flow
ft lbf
Nm ft lbf
= 7.367 · 10-1
1W=1 1 = 1.35582 W
s
s s
ft lbf
J ft lbf
= 4.42 · 101 = 2.25969 · 10-2 W
=1 1
min
s min
Btu
Btu
= 2.930 · 10-1 W
= 3.412 1
h
h
Specific thermal capacity
J Btu Btu J
= 2.388 · 10-4 = 4.1868 · 103
1 1
Ib °F lb °F
kg K kg K
Btu J
J Btu
= 1.491 · 10-5 3 = 6.71 · 104 3
1 1
ft °F ft3 °F
m3 K m K
Thermal conductivity
W Btu in Btu in W
= 1.442 · 10-1
1 = 6.933 2 1
ft h °F ft2 h °F
mK mK
Btu Btu W
= 5.778 · 10-1 1 = 1.7307
ft h °F ft h °F mK
Btu W
Btu
= 2.07689 · 101
= 4.815 · 10-2 1
in h °F
in h °F mK
337
Measures and weights
Imp./US
SI Imp./US SI
unit
unit unit unit
Heat flow rate
Btu
W Btu W
-1
1 2 = 3.17 · 10 1 = 3.1546
ft2 h ft2 h m2
m
Btu W
Btu
= 2.201 · 10-3 = 4.54263 · 102 2
1
in2 h 2
m
in h
Coefficient of heat transfer
W Btu Btu W
= 1.761 · 10-1 2
1 1 = 5.678 2
ft h °F ft2 h °F
m 2K m K
Heat transfer resistance
ft2 h °F ft2 h °F
m2 K 2
-1 m K
1 = 5.678 1 = 1.761 · 10
W Btu Btu W
Temperature interval
1 K = 1 °C = 1.8 °F 1 °F = 5.555 · 10-1 K
= 5.555 · 10-1 °C
lbf = pound-force
Btu = British thermal unit
lbf = pound-force per square inch
in2
338
Measures and weights
Formulae
Determination of some areas and perimeters
Perimeter Area
s2
1. Square 4s
2. Rectangle 2 (g + h) g·h
g·h
3. Triangle sum of all sides
2
G+g
4. Trapezoid sum of all sides ·h
2
r2
5. Circle 2 r
or
d2
d
4
6. Ellipse D + d* ·D·d
2 4
* Approximate value
s = length of side
g = base line
G = height
h = large base line
r = radius
D = large diameter (axis)
d = diameter
= 3.14
339
Measures and weights
Determination of some volumes
= a3
1. Cube
2. Prism (right rectangular) = a·b·h
r2 h
3. Cylinder (drum) =
= G·h
4. Pyramid
3
· r2 · h
5. Right cone =
3
= 4 r2
6. Sphere
3
d · h (2 D2 + d2)*
7. Drum with curved surfaces =
12
* Approximate value
a, b = length of side
h = height
G = base area
D = large diameter at center of drum
d = diameter
r = radius
= 3.14
340
Measures and weights
Determination of the volume of a paddle
As a rule, a paddle consists of a hollow semi-cylinder topped by a hollow
prism. In order to determine the volume of a paddle, the volume of the
hollow semi-cylinder has to be figured out and added to that of the hol-
low prism. The volume of the hollow prism is calculated by multiplying the
paddle length x paddle width x height of right rectangular prism. The
height of the prism can be measured from the upper edge of the paddle
to the beginning of the rounding of the paddle. The following formula is
thus obtained:
Vprism = a · b · c
c
a
b
The volume of the hollow semi-cylinder can be calculated from the length
and the width of the paddle with the aid of the factor 3.14 (= ) according
to the following formula:
r2 h or V a · b · b · 3.14
V= semi-cylinder =
2 8
By adding the volume of the prism and the volume of the hollow semi-
cylinder, the total volume of the paddle is obtained. Thus
Vpaddle = Vprism + Vsemi-cylinder
a · b · b · 3.14
Vpaddle = a · b · c +
8
341
Measures and weights
Example: If on a paddle the length is a = 1.80 m
the width is b = 1.50 m
and the height of the right
rectangular prism is c = 0.35 m
the volume of the paddle can be calculated according to the formula
given as follows:
Vpaddle = 1.8 · 1.5 · 0.35 + 1.8 · 1.5 · 1.5 · 3.14
8
= 2,534 m3 or 2534 l
Determination of the volume of a drum
Since the drum is a hollow cylinder, its volume can be more easily deter-
mined. The measures required are only the inner diameter of the drum
and the inner length of the staves. Thus, the formula is as follows:
· r2 · h or
Vdrum =
Vdrum = d · d · a · 3.14
4
a
d
Example: If of a drum the inner diameter (d = 3 m) and the inner stave
length (a = 2.9 m) are known, and if these figures are applied to the
above formula, then
Vdrum = 3 · 3 · 2.9 · 3.14 = 20.4885 m3 = m3 i. e. roughly 20.5 m3
4
342
Measures and weights
Since a tanning drum is usually filled only up to the hollow axle, the total
volume of the drum is divided by 2:
20.5 : 2 = 10.25 m3
Partial volume of drum
r (b-s) + s · h
PV = ·l
2
l r = radius
r
b = arc
s = chord
s
h = height
PV
l = length
h b
343
Measures and weights
Optimum r. p. m. of processing drums for the appropriate load
volume with non-carrying float lengths
The volume of the load (VL) should not be so large that the diameter of
the load bale (dL) becomes too great.
Otherwise, the revolving speed of the load bale (nL) will drop below the
critical limit when the drum is run at the speed calculated to give the
optimum mixing effect. This deficiency can no longer be corrected by
increasing the r.p.m. of the drum (nD).
The conditions are fulfilled by the following function:
VL
42.4
nD = x 2
nD πxh
dD
dD = inner diameter of drum in m
VL = weight of load in 1000 kg
h = inner width of drum in m
nL dD
π = 3.14
nD = drum speed (r.p.m.) at which the
optimum dispersing or mixing effect
dL
is obtained with a specific load weight
nL = revolving speed of load bale (r.p.m.)
dL = diameter of load bale formed
during drumming
Example: width of drum 3.0 m; diameter of drum 3.0 m; total load 4,0 t
4.0 t
42.4 = 16 r.p.m.
x 2
3.14 x 3,0
3.0
344
Measures and weights
Tables for determining the correct nominal diameters of air
pressure reducers and water separators in compressed air
spraying units
Proper dehumidification of the spraying air and maintenance of a con-
stant working pressure can be ensured only when the air flow rate in the
pressure reducer and water separator lies between 10 and 20 m/s, and
the nominal diameters of their connections must therefore be accordingly.
The nominal diameters of the connections can be determined by first
ascertaining the maximum air consumption in m3/h with the aid of the
diagrams A or B, depending on the type of jet used. The required nomi-
nal diameter in inch can then be found in diagram C within the grey dot-
ted zone straight above the abscissa on which the air consumption is
indicated.
Examples:
1. Determination of air consumption using circular jet (diagram A).
Air pressure: 3.5 bar
Nozzle orifice: 1.8 mm = air consumption: about 13 m3/h
2. Determination of nominal diameter (diagram C)
The value straight above 13 m3/h in the dotted grey zone
representing the flow rate of 10 – 20 m/s is 3/4 inch.
345
Measures and weights
Diagramm A
nozzle orifice (mm)
bar
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
2.5
7.0
6.0 3.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
working 1.0
pressure m3/h
2 4 6 8 1012 16 20 24 28 30 32 36
air consumption with circular jet
Diagramm B
nozzle orifice (mm)
bar
7.0
1.0 1.5 2.0
6.0
2.5
5.0
3.0
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.0
working 1.0
pressure m3/h
2 4 6 8 1012 16 20 24 28 30 32 36
air consumption with flat jet
346
Measures and weights
Diagram C
Required nominal diameter of pressure reducers and water
separators
Flow
rate
m/s 1
/8" 1" 1 /4" 11/2" 2" 21/2" 3" 4" (inch)
1 3 1 3
/ 4" / 8" / 2"
30
5"
20
6"
10
8"
8
6 10"
4
3
2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
m3/h
0.2 0.5 2 5 20 50 200 500
0.1 1 10 100 1000
Discharge volume (air consumption)
347
Measures and weights
Conversion table for temperature readings
Conversion of sub- then then then
tract multi- divide add
ply by by
°C (Celsius) to °F (Fahrenheit) – 9 5 32
°C (Celsius) to °R (Réaumur) – 4 5 –
°F (Fahrenheit) to °C (Celsius) 32 5 9 –
°F (Fahrenheit) to °R (Réaumur) 32 4 9 –
°R (Réaumur) to °C (Celsius) – 5 4 –
°R (Réaumur) to °F (Fahrenheit) – 9 4 32
Temperature conversion table
°C °F °C °F
°C °F °C °F
– 34.5 – 30 – 22.0 –17.8 0 32.0
– 31.7 – 25 –13.0 –17.2 +1 33.8
– 28.9 – 20 – 4.0 –16.7 2 35.6
– 26.1 –15 + 5.0 –16.1 3 37.4
– 23.3 –10 14.0 –15.6 4 39.2
– 22.7 –9 15.8 –15.0 5 41.0
– 22.2 –8 17.6 –14.4 6 42.8
– 21.6 –7 19.4 –13.9 7 44.6
– 21.1 –6 21.2 –13.3 8 46.4
– 20.5 –5 23.0 –12.8 9 48.2
– 20.0 –4 24.8 –12.2 10 50.0
–19.4 –3 26.6 –11.7 11 51.8
–18.9 –2 28.4 –11.1 12 53.6
–18.3 –1 30.2 –10.6 13 55.2
348
Measures and weights
Temperature conversion table
°C °F °C °F
°C °F °C °F
–10.0 14 57.4 8.9 48 118.4
– 9.5 15 59.0 9.5 49 120.2
– 8.9 16 60.8 10.0 50 122.0
– 8.3 17 62.6 10.6 51 123.8
– 7.8 18 64.4 11.1 52 125.6
– 7.2 19 66.2 11.7 53 127.4
– 6.7 20 68.0 12.2 54 129.2
– 6.1 21 69.8 12.8 55 131.0
– 5.6 22 71.6 13.3 56 132.8
– 5.0 23 73.4 13.9 57 134.6
– 4.5 24 75.2 14.4 58 136.4
– 3.9 25 77.0 15.0 59 138.2
– 3.4 26 78.8 15.6 60 140.0
– 2.8 27 80.6 16.1 61 141.8
– 2.3 28 82.4 16.7 62 143.6
–1.7 29 84.2 17.2 63 145.4
–1.1 30 86.0 17.8 64 147.2
– 0.6 31 87.8 18.3 65 149.0
±0 32 89.6 18.9 66 150.8
0.6 33 91.4 19.4 67 152.6
1.1 34 93.2 20.0 68 154.4
1.7 35 95.0 20.6 69 156.2
2.3 36 96.8 21.1 70 158.0
2.8 37 98.6 21.6 71 159.8
3.4 38 100.4 22.2 72 161.6
3.9 39 102.2 22.7 73 163.4
4.5 40 104.0 23.3 74 165.2
5.0 41 105.8 23.9 75 167.0
5.6 42 107.6 24.4 76 168.8
6.1 43 109.4 25.0 77 170.6
6.7 44 111.2 25.6 78 172.4
7.2 45 113.0 26.1 79 174.2
7.8 46 114.8 26.7 80 176.0
8.3 47 116.6 27.2 81 177.8
349
Measures and weights
Temperature conversion table
°C °F °C °F
°C °F °C °F
27.8 82 179.6 46.7 116 240.8
28.3 83 181.4 47.2 117 242.6
28.9 84 183.2 47.8 118 244.4
29.4 85 185.0 48.3 119 246.2
30.0 86 186.8 48.9 120 248.0
30.6 87 188.6 49.4 121 249.8
31.1 88 190.4 50.0 122 251.6
31.7 89 192.2 50.6 123 253.4
32.2 90 194.0 51.1 124 255.2
32.8 91 195.8 51.7 125 257.0
33.3 92 197.6 52.2 126 258.8
33.9 93 199.4 52.8 127 260.6
34.4 94 201.2 53.3 128 262.4
35.0 95 203.0 53.9 129 264.2
35.6 96 204.8 54.4 130 266.0
36.1 97 206.6 55.0 131 267.8
36.7 98 208.4 55.5 132 269.6
37.2 99 210.2 56.1 133 271.4
37.8 100 212.0 56.6 134 273.2
38.3 101 213.8 57.2 135 275.0
38.9 102 215.6 57.7 136 276.8
39.4 103 217.4 58.3 137 278.6
40.0 104 219.2 58.8 138 280.4
40.6 105 221.0 59.4 139 282.2
41.1 106 222.8 60.0 140 284.0
41.7 107 224.6 60.5 141 285.8
42.2 108 226.4 61.1 142 287.6
42.8 109 228.2 61.6 143 289.4
43.3 110 230.0 62.2 144 291.2
43.9 111 231.8 62.7 145 293.0
44.4 112 233.6 63.3 146 294.8
45.0 113 235.4 63.8 147 296.6
45.6 114 237.2 64.4 148 298.4
46.1 115 239.0 65.0 149 300.2
350
Measures and weights
Temperature conversion table
°C °F °C °F
°C °F °C °F
65.5 150 302.0 84.4 184 363.2
66.1 151 303.8 85.0 185 365.0
66.6 152 305.6 85.6 186 366.8
67.2 153 307.4 86.1 187 368.6
67.7 154 309.2 86.7 188 370.4
68.3 155 311.0 87.2 189 372.2
68.8 156 312.8 87.8 190 374.0
69.4 157 314.6 88.3 191 375.8
70.0 158 316.4 88.9 192 377.6
70.5 159 318.2 89.4 193 379.4
71.0 160 320.0 90.0 194 381.2
71.6 161 321.8 90.5 195 383.0
72.2 162 323.6 91.1 196 384.8
72.7 163 325.4 91.6 197 386.6
73.3 164 327.2 92.2 198 388.4
73.8 165 329.0 92.7 199 390.2
74.4 166 330.8 93.3 200 392.0
75.0 167 332.6 93.9 201 393.8
75.5 168 334.4 94.4 202 395.6
76.1 169 336.2 95.0 203 397.4
76.6 170 338.0 95.6 204 399.2
77.2 171 339.8 96.1 205 401.0
77.7 172 341.6 96.7 206 402.8
78.3 173 343.4 97.2 207 404.6
78.8 174 345.2 97.8 208 406.4
79.3 175 347.0 98.3 209 408.2
79.9 176 348.8 98.9 210 410.0
80.5 177 350.6 99.4 211 411.8
81.0 178 352.4 100.0 212 413.6
81.6 179 354.2
82.1 180 356.0
82.7 181 357.8
83.3 182 359.6
83.9 183 361.4
351
Measures and weights
Conversion table for density and Baumé, barkometer and twaddle
hydrometer readings
0 °Bé = density of distilled water at 15 °C
10 °Bé = density of a 10 % solution of common salt
66 °Bé = density of concentrated sulfuric acid
144.38 (density –1)
degrees Baumé =
density
degrees barkometer = 1000 (density –1)
degrees twaddle = 200 (density –1)
Density Density
Baumé Bark. Twaddle g/cm3 Baumé Bark. Twaddle g/cm3
0.1 0.7 0.14 1.0007 4.0 28.0 5.6 1.0280
0.2 1.4 0.28 1.0014 4.5 31.6 6.3 1.0316
0.3 2.0 0.40 1.0020 5.0 35.3 7.1 1.0353
0.4 2.7 0.54 1.0027 5.5 38.9 7.8 1.0389
0.5 3.4 0.69 1.0034 6.0 42.6 8.6 1.0426
0.6 4.1 0.82 1.0041 6.5 46.3 9.3 1.0463
0.7 4.8 0.96 1.0048 7.0 50.1 10.2 1.0501
0.8 5.5 1.10 1.0055 7.5 53.9 10.8 1.0539
0.9 6.2 1.24 1.0062 8.0 57.6 11.6 1.0576
1.0 6.9 1.38 1.0069 8.5 61.5 12.3 1.0615
1.1 7.6 1.52 1.0076 9.0 65.3 13.1 1.0653
1.2 8.2 1.64 1.0082 9.5 69.2 13.9 1.0692
1.3 8.9 1.78 1.0089 10.0 73.1 14.6 1.0731
1.4 9.6 1.92 1.0096 11 81.0 16.2 1.0810
1.5 10.3 2.06 1.0103 12 89.0 17.8 1.0890
1.6 11.0 2.20 1.0110 13 97.1 19.5 1.0971
1.7 11.7 2.34 1.0117 14 105.4 21.1 1.1054
1.8 12.4 2.48 1.0124 15 113.8 22.8 1.1138
1.9 13.1 2.62 1.0131 16 122.3 24.6 1.1223
2.0 13.8 2.76 1.0138 17 131.0 26.2 1.1310
2.5 17.3 3.46 1.0173 18 139.8 27.9 1.1398
3.0 20.9 4.18 1.0209 19 148.7 29.8 1.1487
3.5 24.4 4.88 1.0244 20 157.8 31.6 1.1578
352
Measures and weights
Density Density
Baumé Bark. Twaddle g/cm3 Baumé Bark. Twaddle g/cm3
21 167.0 33.4 1.1670 48.7 510 102 1.5100
22 176.3 35.3 1.1763 49.4 520 104 1.5200
23 185.8 37.2 1.1858 50.0 530 106 1.5300
24 195.5 39.1 1.1955 50.6 540 108 1.5400
25 205.3 41.1 1.2053 51.2 550 110 1.5500
26 215.3 43.1 1.2153 51.8 560 112 1.5600
27 225.4 45.1 1.2254 52.4 570 114 1.5700
28 235.7 47.2 1.2357 53.0 580 116 1.5800
29 246.2 49.3 1.2462 53.6 590 118 1.5900
30 256.9 51.4 1.2569 54.1 600 120 1.6000
30.6 270 54 1.2700 54.7 610 122 1.6100
31.5 280 56 1.2800 55.2 620 124 1.6200
32.4 290 58 1.2900 55.8 630 126 1.6300
33.3 300 60 1.3000 56.3 640 128 1.6400
34.2 310 62 1.3100 56.9 650 130 1.6500
35.0 320 64 1.3200 57.4 660 132 1.6600
35.8 330 66 1.3300 57.9 670 134 1.6700
36.6 340 68 1.3400 58.4 680 136 1.6800
37.4 350 70 1.3500 58.9 690 138 1.6900
38.2 360 72 1.3600 59.5 700 140 1.7000
39.0 370 74 1.3700 60.0 710 142 1.7100
39.8 380 76 1.3800 60.4 720 144 1.7200
40.5 390 78 1.3900 60.9 730 146 1.7300
41.2 400 80 1.4000 61.4 740 148 1.7400
42.0 410 82 1.4100 61.8 750 150 1.7500
42.7 420 84 1.4200 62.3 760 152 1.7600
43.4 430 86 1.4300 62.8 770 154 1.7700
44.1 440 88 1.4400 63.2 780 156 1.7800
44.8 450 90 1.4500 63.7 790 158 1.7900
45.4 460 92 1.4600 64.2 800 160 1.8000
46.1 470 94 1.4700 64.6 810 162 1.8100
46.8 480 96 1.4800 65.0 820 164 1.8200
47.4 490 98 1.4900 65.5 830 166 1.8300
48.1 500 100 1.5000 65.9 840 168 1.8400
353
Measures and weights
Rules for mixing
If two solutions of different concentration of one substance have to be
mixed together to give a solution of any desired concentration, the fol-
lowing procedure is adopted to calculate the proportion of each. The
desired concentration is subtracted from the higher concentration to give
the proportion of solution with the lower concentration; and the lower
concentration is subtracted from the desired concentration to give the
proportion of solution with the higher concentration.
Example No. 1
Solutions of 96 % and 75 % concentration are to be mixed together to
give a solution of 80 % concentration.
96 – 80 = 16 parts = proportion of 75 % solution
80 – 75 = 5 parts of 96 % solution
Example No. 2
A solution of 96 % concentration has to be mixed with pure solvent
(0 % concentration) to give a solution of 40 % concentration.
96 – 40 = 56 parts = proportion of solvent
40 – 40 = 40 parts = proportion of 96 solution
Example No. 1 Example No. 2
96 5 96 40
40
80
75 16 0 56
21 96
If the concentrations are expressed in percentages by weight, the pro-
portions obtained by the above method represent parts by weight. If the
concentrations are expressed in % vol., the proportions represent parts
by volume.
An analogous procedure can be adopted to prepare solutions of a given
density.
354
Elements
Symbol, atomic number and atomic weight of elements
Name Symbol Atomic number Atomic weight
Actinium Ac 89 (227)
Aluminium Al 13 27.0
Americium Am 95 (243)
Antimony Sb 51 121.8
Argon Ar 18 39.9
Arsenic As 33 74.9
Astatine At 85 (210)
Barium Ba 56 137.3
Berkelium Bk 97 (247)
Beryllium Be 4 9.0
Bismuth Bi 83 209.0
Boron B 5 10.8
Bromine Br 35 79.9
Cadmium Cd 48 112.4
Calcium Ca 20 40.1
Californium Cf 98 (251)
Carbon C 6 12.0
Cerium Ce 58 140.1
Cesium Cs 55 132.9
Chlorine Cl 17 35.5
Chromium Cr 24 52.0
Cobalt Co 27 58.9
Copper Cu 29 63.5
Curium Cm 96 (247)
Dysprosium Dy 66 162.5
Einsteinium Es 99 (254)
Erbium Er 68 167.3
Europium Eu 63 152.0
Fermium Fm 100 (257)
Fluorine F 9 19.0
Francium Fr 87 (223)
355
Elements
Symbol, atomic number and atomic weight of elements
Name Symbol Atomic number Atomic weight
Gadolinium Gd 64 157.3
Gallium Ga 31 69.7
Germanium Ge 32 72.6
Gold Au 79 197.0
Hafnium Hf 72 178.5
Helium He 2 4.0
Holmium Ho 67 164.9
Hydrogen H 1 1.0
Indium In 49 114.8
Iodine I 53 126.9
Iridium Ir 77 192.2
Iron Fe 26 55.8
Krypton Kr 36 83.8
Lanthanum La 57 138.9
Lead Pb 82 207.2
Lithium Li 3 6.9
Lutetium Lu 71 175.0
Magnesium Mg 12 24.3
Manganese Mn 25 54.9
Mendelevium Md 101 (258)
Mercury Hg 80 200.6
Molybdenum Mo 42 95.9
Neodymium Nd 60 144.2
Neon Ne 10 20.2
Neptunium Np 93 (237)
Nickel Ni 28 58.7
Niobium Nb 41 92.9
Nitrogen N 7 14.0
Nobelium No 102 (254)
Osmium Os 76 190.2
Oxygen O 8 16.0
356
Elements
Symbol, atomic number and atomic weight of elements
Name Symbol Atomic number Atomic weight
Palladium Pd 46 106.4
Phosphorus P 15 31.0
Platinum Pt 78 195.1
Plutonium Pu 94 (244)
Polonium Po 84 (210)
Potassium K 19 39.1
Praseodymium Pr 59 140.9
Promethium Pm 61 (145)
Protactinium Pa 91 (231)
Radium Ra 88 (226)
Radon Rn 86 (222)
Rhenium Re 75 186.2
Rhodium Rh 45 102.9
Rubidium Rb 37 85.5
Ruthenium Ru 44 101.1
Samarium Sm 62 150.4
Scandium Sc 21 45.0
Selenium Se 34 79.0
Silicon Si 14 28.1
Silver Ag 47 107.9
Sodium Na 11 23.0
Strontium Sr 38 87.6
Sulfur S 16 32.1
Tantalum Ta 73 180.9
Technetium Tc 43 (99)
Tellurium Te 52 127.6
Terbium Tb 65 158.9
Thallium TI 81 204.4
Thorium Th 90 232.0
Thulium Tm 69 168.9
Tin Sn 50 118.7
Titanium Ti 22 47.9
Tungsten W 74 183.9
Uranium U 92 238.0
357
Elements
Symbol, atomic number and atomic weight of elements
Name Symbol Atomic number Atomic weight
Vanadium V 23 50.9
Xenon Xe 54 131.3
Ytterbium Yb 70 173.0
Yttrium Y 39 88.9
Zinc Zn 30 65.4
Zirconium Zr 40 91.2
The atomic weights indicated in brackets are the isotopes of the element
with the greatest half-life period.
358
Chemical compounds
Molecular weight, formula and solubility in water of some chemical
compounds
Chemical Formula Mole- Solubility/1 litre
H2O, 20 °C/
compound cular
weight in g
Acetic acid CH3COOH 60.1 –
Acetone CH3-CO-CH3 58.1 –
AlCl3 · 6H2O 241.4 450 (readily soluble)
Aluminium chloride
Aluminium hydroxide Al(OH)3 78.0 – (practically
insoluble)
Al2O3 102.0 insoluble
Aluminium oxide
Aluminium sulfate Al2 (SO4)3 · 18H2O 666.4 363 (readily soluble)
Ammonia (gas) NH3 17.0 very readily soluble
Ammonia (solution) NH4OH 35.0 (23 % NH3 content)
Ammonium chloride NH4Cl 53.5 374 (readily soluble)
Ammonium sulfate (NH4)2 SO4 132.1 754 (very readily
soluble)
BaCl2 · 2H2O 244.3 357
Barium chloride
233.4 insoluble
Barium sulfate BaSO4
Borax
(sodium tetraborate) Na2B4O7 · 10H2O 381.4 ~ 20 (readily hot
soluble)
Boric acid H3BO3 61.8 49
Calcium carbonate CaCO3 100.1 insoluble
Calcium chloride CaCl2 111.0 readily soluble
calc.
359
Chemical compounds
Molecular weight, formula and solubility in water of some chemical
compounds
Chemical Formula Mole- Solubility/1 litre
H2O, 20 °C/
compound cular
weight in g
Calcium chloride CaCl2 · 6H2O 219.1 745
cryst.
130.1 soluble
Calcium formate Ca(HCOO)2
Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2 74.1 1.3 (difficult soluble)
Calcium oxide CaO 56.1 with H2O Ca(OH)2
Carbon disulfide CS2 76.1 2
Chrome alum KCr(SO4)2 · 12H2O 499.4 ~ 240
Chromium chloride CrCl3 158.4 readily soluble
Chromium hydroxide Cr(OH)3 103.0 insoluble
Chromium sulfate Cr2 (SO4)3 · 18H2O 716.5 1200
Copper sulfate CuSO4 · 5H2O 249.7 350
Dimethylamine (CH3)2NH 45.1 readily soluble
Ethyl alcohol C2H5OH 46.1 –
(ethanol)
Formaldehyde HCHO 30.0 soluble
(formaldehyde)
Formic acid HCOOH 46.0 –
Glucose C6H12O6 180.2 ~ 850 (readily
soluble)
CHO-(CH2)3-CHO 100.1 soluble
Glutaraldehyde
Glyoxal C 2H 2O 2 58.0 soluble
360
Chemical compounds
Molecular weight, formula and solubility in water of some chemical
compounds
Chemical Formula Mole- Solubility/1 litre
H2O, 20 °C/
compound cular
weight in g
C6H12N4 140.2 ~ 820
Hexamethylene
tetramine
Hydrochloric acid HCl 36.5 –
H 2O 2 34.0 miscible
Hydrogen peroxide
Hydrogen sulfide H 2S 34.1 considerably soluble
Iron alum KFe (SO4)2 · 503.1 soluble
12H2O
Iron(III) chloride Fe Cl3 · 6H2O 270.3 919
Iron(III) sulfate Fe2 (SO4)3 · 9H2O 562.1 440
Iron(II) sulfate Fe SO4 · 7H2O 278.1 156.5
Iron(III) oxide Fe2O3 159.7 insoluble
Iron(II) oxide FeO 71.8 insoluble
Lactic acid CH3-CHOH-COOH 90.1 –
Lead acetate Pb(OOCCH3)2 · 379.3 460
3H2O
Lead(II) sulfate PbSO4 303.3 insoluble
Magnesium chloride MgCl2 · 6H2O 203.3 542
Magnesium oxide MgO 40.3 soluble in acids
Magnesium sulfate MgSO4 · 7H2O 246.5 356
Nitric acid HNO3 63.0 –
361
Chemical compounds
Molecular weight, formula and solubility in water of some chemical
compounds
Chemical Formula Mole- Solubility/1 litre
H2O, 20 °C/
compound cular
weight in g
90.0 96.4
Oxalic acid (COOH)2
Phenol C 6H 6O 94.1 –
Phthalic acid C 8H 6O 4 166.1 5.7
Potash alum KAI(SO4)2 · 12H2O 474.4 114
Potassium carbonate K2CO3 138.2 1115
Potassium chloride KCl 74.5 344
Potassium K2Cr2O7 294.2 123
dichromate
Potassium hydroxide KOH 56.1 1114
Potassium KMnO4 158.0 64
permanganate
Sodium acetate NaOOC-CH3 · 136.1 ~ 800
3H2O
84.0 96
Sodium bicarbonate NaHCO3
Sodium dichromate Na2Cr2O7 · 2H2O 298.0 ~ 2400
Sodium bisulfite NaHSO3 104.1 very readily soluble
Sodium carbonate Na2CO3 106.0 readily soluble
calc.
Na2CO3 · 10H2O 286.1 216
Sodium carbonate
cryst.
Sodium chloride NaCl 58.4 359
362
Chemical compounds
Molecular weight, formula and solubility in water of some chemical
compounds
Chemical Formula Mole- Solubility/1 litre
H2O, 20 °C/
compound cular
weight in g
90.4 ~ 600
Sodium chlorite NaClO2
Sodium formate HCOO Na 68.0 readily soluble
Sodium hexameta- Na6 (PO3)6 611.1 soluble
phosphate
Na2S2O4 · 2H2O 210.2 254
Sodium
hydrosulfite
Sodium hydroxide NaOH 40.0 1070
Sodium nitrite NaNO2 69.0 ~ 830
Sodium phosphate NaH2PO4 · H2O 138.0 1103
(mono)
Na2HPO4 · 12H2O 358.2 ~ 700
Sodium phosphate
(di.)
Sodium phosphate Na3PO4 · 12H2O 380.1 258
(tri)
Na2SO4 · 10H2O 322.2 191
Sodium sulfate
(cryst.)
Na2SO4 142.1 readily soluble
Sodium sulfate
(powder)
Sodium sulfide Na2S · 9H2O 240.2 475 (10 °C)
(cryst.)
Na2S 78.1 154 (10 °C)
Sodium sulfide
(powder)
Sodium sulfite Na2SO3 126.0 readily soluble
363
Chemical compounds
Molecular weight, formula and solubility in water of some chemical
compounds
Chemical Formula Mole- Solubility/1 litre
H2O, 20 °C/
compound cular
weight in g
Sodium NaSH 56.0 readily soluble
sulfhydrate
Na2S2O3 · 5H2O 248.2 700
Sodium thiosulfate
Sulfuric acid H2SO4 98.1 –
Tartaric acid C 4H 6O 6 150.1 ~ 140
Titanium dioxide TiO2 79.9 insoluble
Urea (NH2)2 · CO 60.1 ~ 800
Zinc chloride ZnCl2 136.3 367
Zinc sulfate ZnSO4 · 7H2O 287.5 538
Zirconium dioxide ZrO2 123.1 insoluble
Zirconium sulfate Zr(SO4)2 · 4H2O 355.4 soluble
364
Chemical compounds
Production of a certain relative humidity
The salts listed below can produce a certain relative humidity at 20 °C
through their saturated, aqueous solutions, which must still contain solid
salt at the bottom.
Relative Product
humidity
98 % Lead nitrate, Pb (NO3)2
97 % Potassium sulfate, K2SO4
95 % Sec. sodium phosphate, Na2HPO4 · 12H2O
Primary ammonium phosphate, NH4H2PO4
93 %
92 % Cryst. soda, Na2CO3 · 10H2O
Potassium chromate, K2CrO4
88 %
86 % Potassium chloride, KCl, or Potassium bisulfate, KHSO4
84 % Potassium bromide, KBr
Ammonium sulfate, (NH4)2 SO4
81%
79 % Ammonium chloride, NH4Cl
Cryst. sodium acetate, CH3COONa · 3H2O
76 %
75 % Sodium chloride, NaCl or Sodium chlorate, NaClO3
66 % Sodium nitrite, NaNO2
65 % Ammonium nitrate, NH4NO3
58 % Cryst. sodium bromide, NaBr · 2H2O
Magnesium nitrate, Mg(NO3)2 · 6H2O
56 %
Calcium nitrate, Ca(NO3)2
55 %
52 % Sodium dichromate, Na2Cr2O7 · 2H2O
47 % Potassium rhodanide, KSCN
Potassium carbonate, K2CO3 · 2H2O
45 %
Cryst. zinc nitrate, Zn(NO3)2 · 6H2O
42 %
Cryst. calcium chloride, CaCl2 · 6H2O
35 %
Cryst. copper-II-chloride, CuCl2 · 6H2O
31%
Potassium acetate, CH3COOK
20 %
15 % Lithium chloride, LiCl · H2O
365
Chemical compounds
Definition of mixtures of substances
Dispersion Heterogeneous mixture of substances in which one phase
in form of particles is dispersed more or less finely in
another phase, the dispersing agent = disperse system.
1. Colloidal disperse system:
Particle sizes 10-9 ... 5 x 10-7 m.
a. Sol = colloidal solution.
b. Gel = gelatinous substance.
Sols can be converted into gels by coagulation. Some
gels can be converted into sols by peptisation.
2. Coarsely disperse system:
Particle size > 5 x 10-7 m.
Emulsion Heterogeneous mixture of two or more liquid substances.
Mixture Substances consisting of two ore more substances pro-
duced by physical processes (not by chemical reactions).
1. Homogeneous mixture:
Mixtures whose constituents are not distinguishable even
by viewing under a microscope, e. g., true solutions.
2. Heterogeneous mixture:
a. Mixture consisting of two or more phases which are
separated from one another at least by microscopically
distinguishable separating surfaces.
b. Like heterogeneous mixtures, but one phase is finely
dispersed in another phase, the dispersing agent.
Solution 1. True solution:
Homogeneous mixture of two or more substances.
Particle size of the dissolved substances <10-9 m.
2. Colloidal solution:
Heterogeneous mixture of substances.
Particle sizes 10-9 ...5 x 10-7 m.
Phase Homogeneous portion of a heterogeneous mixture.
Suspension Heterogeneous mixture of solid and liquid substances.
Foam Heterogeneous mixture of gases and liquids.
366
Chemical compounds
Terms expressing interaction with water
Moistness Liquids held or deposited in a solid.
Absorption The action of a material in taking up water vapour
and retaining it throughout its structure.
Adsorption The adhesion of water vapour to the outer and inner
surfaces of a material.
Sorption The action of a material in taking up water and/or
water vapour. Absorption and adsorption may
overlap when water vapour is taken up from the air.
Desorption The action of a material in giving off (usually)
absorbed and/or adsorbed water vapour to the
surrounding atmosphere.
Moistness State of equilibrium between moistness content of a
equilibrium material and relative humidity.
Mass of Mass of a moist material (including liquids).
moistness
Moistness Moistness (water) content in relation to mass of
(water) content moistness.
Moistness ratio Moistness in relation to dry solids.
Relative change Difference of moistness of a material after drying or
of moistness moistening in relation to the mass of moistness at
the outset.
Dry solids Solids in a material free from moistness.
Commercial Solids content including defined (usually maximum
grades permissible) moistness according to commercial
practice.
Normal moist State of a solid conditioned under standard climatic
or dry state conditions to constant mass weight.
Air-dry state Like normally dry state but strict adherence to condi-
tioning under standard climatic conditions to con-
stant mass weight is not required.
367
368 Density/alkalis
Density and conversion tables
Alkalis
Density and concentration of caustic soda solution (NaOH) 20°/4 °C
% NaOH g per Density ° Bé lbs per lbs per
(g/cm3)
litre cubic foot gallon
1 10.10 1.0095 1.4 0.6302 0.0842
2 20.41 1.0207 2.9 1.274 0.1704
3 30.95 1.0318 4.5 1.932 0.2583
4 41.71 1.0428 6.0 2.604 0.3481
5 52.69 1.0538 7.4 3.280 0.4397
6 63.89 1.0648 8.8 3.988 0.5332
7 75.31 1.0758 10.2 4.701 0.6284
8 86.95 1.0869 11.6 5.428 0.7256
9 98.81 1.0979 12.9 6.168 0.8246
10 110.9 1.1089 14.2 6.923 0.9254
12 135.7 1.1309 16.8 8.472 1.133
14 161.4 1.1530 19.2 10.08 1.347
16 188.0 1.1751 21.6 11.74 1.569
18 215.5 1.1972 23.9 13.45 1.798
20 243.8 1.2191 26.1 15.22 2.035
22 273.0 1.2411 28.2 17.05 2.279
24 303.1 1.2629 30.2 18.92 2.529
26 334.0 1.2848 32.1 20.85 2.788
28 365.8 1.3064 34.0 22.84 3.053
30 398.4 1.3279 35.8 24.87 3.324
32 431.7 1.3490 37.5 26.95 3.602
34 465.7 1.3696 39.1 29.07 3.886
36 500.4 1.3900 40.7 31.24 4.176
38 535.8 1.4101 42.2 33.45 4.472
40 572.0 1.4300 43.6 35.71 4.773
42 608.7 1.4494 45.0 38.00 5.080
44 646.1 1.4685 46.3 40.34 5.392
46 684.2 1.4873 47.5 42.71 5.709
48 723.1 1.5065 48.8 45.14 6.035
50 762.7 1.5253 49.9 47.61 6.364
369
Density/alkalis
Density and concentration of ammonia (NH4OH) aqueous solution
Density % g/l Density % g/l
g/cm3 g/cm3
NH3 NH3 NH3 NH3
1.0000 0.00 0.0 0.9428 14.90 141.7
0.9982 0.42 4.2 0.9412 15.37 145.1
0.9964 0.82 8.2 0.9336 15.84 149.4
0.9947 1.21 12.1 0.9389 16.32 153.6
0.9929 1.62 16.1 0.9365 16.80 158.7
0.9912 2.04 19.9 0.9349 17.28 163.3
0.9894 2.46 24.2 0.9333 17.76 167.9
0.9876 2.88 28.3 0.9318 18.24 172.5
0.9859 3.30 32.5 0.9302 18.72 177.1
0.9842 3.73 36.7 0.9287 19.20 181.6
0.9825 4.16 40.8 0.9272 19.68 185.7
0.9807 4.59 44.9 0.9256 20.16 190.1
0.9790 5.02 49.1 0.9241 20.64 194.3
0.9773 5.45 53.2 0.9226 21.12 198.8
0.9756 5.88 57.4 0.9211 21.60 203.1
0.9739 6.31 61.6 0.9195 22.08 207.4
0.9722 6.74 65.8 0.9180 22.56 211.9
0.9705 7.17 70.0 0.9165 23.04 216.2
0.9689 7.61 74.3 0.9150 23.52 220.7
0.9672 8.05 78.5 0.9135 24.01 225.3
0.9655 8.49 82.8 0.9121 24.50 229.8
0.9639 8.93 86.9 0.9106 24.99 234.4
0.9622 9.38 90.4 0.9091 25.48 238.9
0.9605 9.83 94.9 0.9076 25.97 243.2
0.9589 10.28 99.3 0.9061 26.46 247.6
0.9573 10.73 103.5 0.9032 27.44 253.1
0.9556 11.18 107.7 0.9003 28.42 258.7
0.9540 11.64 111.8 0.8974 29.40 264.2
0.9524 12.10 115.9 0.8946 30.38 269.6
0.9508 12.56 120.2 0.8917 31.36 275.9
0.9492 13.02 124.6 0.8889 32.34 281.5
0.9475 13.49 129.1 0.8861 33.32 287.7
0.9459 13.96 133.5 0.8833 34.30 294.5
0.9444 14.43 137.6 0.8805 35.28 301.4
370
Density/alkalis
Density and concentration of soda ash (Na2CO3) 20°/4 °C
% Na2CO3 g per Density ° Bé lbs per lbs per
(g/cm3)
litre cubic foot gallon
1 10.09 1.0086 1.2 0.6296 0.0842
2 20.38 1.0190 2.7 1.272 0.1701
4 41.59 1.0398 5.6 2.596 0.3471
6 64.64 1.0606 8.3 3.973 0.5311
8 86.53 1.0816 10.9 5.402 0.7221
10 110.3 1.1029 13.5 6.885 0.9204
12 134.9 1.1244 16.0 8.423 1.126
14 160.5 1.1463 18.5 10.02 1.339
Density and concentration soda cryst. (Na2CO3·10H2O) 20°/4 °C
% Na2CO3 g per Density ° Bé lbs. per lbs. per
(g/cm3)
10 H2O litre cubic foot gallon
2.7 27.23 1.0086 1.2 1.700 0.2272
5.4 55.02 1.0190 2.7 3.435 0.4592
10.8 112.3 1.0398 5.6 7.010 0.9370
16.2 171.8 1.0606 8.3 10.72 1.434
21.6 233.6 1.0816 10.9 14.58 1.949
27.0 297.7 1.1029 13.5 18.59 2.485
32.4 364.3 1.1244 16.0 22.74 3.040
37.8 433.3 1.1463 18.5 27.05 3.616
Equivalents of soda ash and soda cryst.
Soda ash [g] Soda cryst. [g] Soda ash [g] Soda cryst. [g] Soda ash [g] Soda cryst. [g]
1 2.7 15 40.5 45 121.5
2 5.4 16 43.2 50 135.0
3 8.1 17 45.9 55 148.5
4 10.8 18 48.6 60 162.0
5 13.5 19 51.3 65 175.5
6 16.2 20 54.0 70 189.0
7 18.9 21 56.7 75 202.5
8 21.6 22 59.4 80 216.0
9 24.3 23 62.1 85 229.5
10 27.0 24 64.8 90 243.0
11 29.7 25 67.5 95 256.5
12 32.4 30 81.0 100 270.0
13 35.7 35 94.5
14 37.8 40 108.0
371
Density/acids
Acids
Density and concentration of formic acid (HCOOH) 20°/4 °C
% HCOOH g per Density ° Bé lbs per lbs per
(g/cm3)
litre cubic foot gallon
1 10.02 1.0019 0.3 0.6255 0.0836
2 20.09 1.0044 0.6 1.254 0.1676
3 30.21 1.0070 1.0 1.886 0.2521
4 40.37 1.0093 1.3 2.520 0.3369
5 50.58 1.0115 1.6 3.157 0.4221
6 60.85 1.0141 2.0 3.798 0.5078
7 71.19 1.0170 2.4 4.444 0.5941
8 81.57 1.0196 2.8 5.092 0.6807
9 91.99 1.0221 3.1 5.743 0.7677
10 102.5 1.0246 3.5 6.396 0.8551
11 113.0 1.0271 3.8 7.053 0.9429
12 123.6 1.0296 4.2 7.713 1.031
13 134.2 1.0321 4.5 8.376 1.120
14 144.8 1.0345 4.8 9.041 1.209
15 155.6 1.0370 5.2 9.711 1.298
16 166.3 1.0393 5.5 10.38 1.388
17 177.1 1.0417 5.8 11.06 1.478
18 187.9 1.0441 6.1 11.73 1.568
19 198.8 1.0464 6.4 12.41 1.659
20 209.8 1.0488 6.8 13.09 1.750
21 220.8 1.0512 7.1 13.78 1.842
22 231.8 1.0537 7.4 14.47 1.935
23 242.9 1.0561 7.7 15.16 2.027
24 254.0 1.0585 8.0 15.86 2.120
25 265.2 1.0609 8.3 16.56 2.213
26 276.5 1.0633 8.6 17.26 2.307
27 287.7 1.0656 8.9 17.96 2.401
28 299.1 1.0681 9.3 18.67 2.496
29 310.4 1.0705 9.6 19.38 2.591
30 321.9 1.0729 9.9 20.09 2.686
31 333.3 1.0753 10.2 20.81 2.782
32 344.9 1.0777 10.5 21.53 2.878
33 356.4 1.0800 10.7 22.25 2.974
34 368.0 1.0823 11.0 22.97 3.071
372
Density/acids
Density and concentration of formic acid (HCOOH) 20°/4 °C
% HCOOH g per Density ° Bé lbs. per lbs. per
(g/cm3)
litre cubic foot gallon
35 379.6 1.0847 11.3 23.70 3.168
36 391.4 1.0871 11.6 24.43 3.266
37 403.1 1.0895 11.9 25.17 3.364
38 414.9 1.0919 12.2 25.90 3.463
39 426.7 1.0940 12.5 26.64 3.561
40 438.5 1.0963 12.7 27.38 3.660
41 450.6 1.0990 13.1 28.13 3.760
42 462.6 1.1015 13.4 28.88 3.861
43 474.6 1.1038 13.6 29.63 3.961
44 486.7 1.1062 13.9 30.38 4.062
45 498.8 1.1085 14.2 31.14 4.163
46 511.0 1.1108 14.5 31.90 4.264
47 523.1 1.1130 14.7 32.66 4.365
48 535.5 1.1157 15.0 33.43 4.469
49 548.1 1.1185 15.4 34.21 4.574
50 560.4 1.1207 15.6 34.98 4.676
51 572.4 1.1223 15.8 35.73 4.777
52 584.7 1.1244 16.0 36.50 4.879
53 597.3 1.1269 16.3 37.28 4.984
54 609.9 1.1295 16.6 38.08 5.090
55 622.6 1.1320 16.9 38.87 5.196
56 635.2 1.1342 17.2 39.65 5.300
57 647.6 1.1361 17.4 40.43 5.404
58 660.1 1.1381 17.6 41.21 5.509
59 672.7 1.1401 17.8 41.99 5.613
60 685.4 1.1424 18.1 42.79 5.720
61 698.3 1.1448 18.3 43.59 5.828
62 711.3 1.1473 18.6 44.41 5.936
63 724.1 1.1493 18.8 45.20 6.042
64 737.1 1.1517 19.1 46.01 6.151
65 750.3 1.1543 19.4 46.84 6.261
66 763.3 1.1565 19.6 47.65 6.370
67 776.1 1.1584 19.8 48.45 6.477
68 789.1 1.1604 20.0 49.26 6.585
373
Density/acids
Density and concentration of formic acid (HCOOH) 20°/4 °C
% HCOOH g per Density ° Bé lbs. per lbs. per
(g/cm3)
litre cubic foot gallon
69 802.3 1.1628 20.3 50.09 6.696
70 815.9 1.1655 20.6 50.93 6.808
71 829.1 1.1677 20.8 51.76 6.919
72 842.5 1.1702 21.1 52.60 7.031
73 856.1 1.1728 21.4 53.45 7.145
74 869.6 1.1752 21.6 54.29 7.257
75 882.7 1.1769 21.8 55.10 7.366
76 895.7 1.1785 22.0 55.91 7.474
77 908.7 1.1801 22.1 56.73 7.583
78 921.8 1.1818 22.3 57.55 7.693
79 935.1 1.1837 22.5 58.38 7.804
80 948.8 1.1860 22.7 59.23 7.918
81 962.0 1.1876 22.9 60.05 8.028
82 975.5 1.1896 23.1 60.90 8.141
83 988.9 1.1914 23.3 61.73 8.252
84 1002 1.1929 23.5 62.55 8.362
85 1016 1.1953 23.7 63.43 8.479
86 1030 1.1976 23.9 64.30 8.595
87 1043 1.1994 24.1 65.14 8.708
88 1057 1.2012 24.3 65.99 8.821
89 1070 1.2028 24.5 66.83 8.933
90 1084 1.2044 24.6 67.67 9.046
91 1097 1.2059 24.8 68.51 9.158
92 1111 1.2078 25.0 69.37 9.273
93 1125 1.2099 25.2 70.24 9.390
94 1139 1.2117 25.3 71.10 9.505
95 1153 1.2140 25.6 72.00 9.625
96 1167 1.2158 25.7 72.86 9.740
97 1180 1.2170 25.9 73.69 9.851
98 1194 1.2183 26.0 74.53 9.964
99 1208 1.2202 26.2 75.41 10.08
100 1221 1.2212 26.3 76.24 10.19
374
Density/acids
Density and concentration of sulfuric acid (H2SO4) 20°/4 °C
% H2SO4 g per Density ° Bé lbs. per lbs. per
(g/cm3)
litre cubic foot gallon
1 10.05 1.0051 0.7 0.6275 0.0839
2 20.24 1.0118 1.7 1.263 0.1689
3 30.55 1.0184 2.6 1.907 0.2550
4 41.00 1.0250 3.5 2.560 0.3422
5 51.59 1.0317 4.5 3.220 0.4305
6 62.31 1.0385 5.4 3.890 0.5200
7 73.17 1.0453 6.3 4.568 0.6106
8 84.18 1.0522 7.2 5.255 0.7025
9 95.32 1.0591 8.1 5.950 0.7955
10 106.6 1.0661 9.0 6.655 0.8897
11 118.0 1.0731 9.9 7.369 0.9851
12 129.6 1.0802 10.8 8.092 1.082
13 141.4 1.0874 11.7 8.825 1.180
14 153.3 1.0947 12.5 9.567 1.279
15 165.3 1.1020 13.4 10.32 1.379
16 177.5 1.1094 14.3 11.08 1.481
17 189.9 1.1168 15.2 11.85 1.584
18 202.4 1.1243 16.0 12.63 1.689
19 215.0 1.1318 16.9 13.42 1.795
20 227.9 1.1394 17.7 14.23 1.902
21 240.9 1.1471 18.6 15.04 2.010
22 254.1 1.1548 19.4 15.86 2.120
23 267.4 1.1626 20.3 16.69 2.231
24 280.9 1.1704 21.1 17.54 2.344
25 294.6 1.1783 21.9 18.39 2.458
26 308.4 1.1862 22.8 19.25 2.574
27 322.4 1.1942 23.6 20.13 2.691
28 336.6 1.2023 24.4 21.02 2.809
29 351.0 1.2104 25.2 21.91 2.929
30 365.6 1.2185 26.0 22.82 3.051
31 380.3 1.2267 26.8 23.74 3.173
32 395.2 1.2349 27.6 24.67 3.298
33 410.3 1.2432 28.4 25.61 3.424
34 425.5 1.2515 29.1 26.56 3.551
375
Density/acids
Density and concentration of sulfuric acid (H2SO4) 20°/4 °C
% H2SO4 g per Density ° Bé lbs. per lbs. per
(g/cm3)
litre cubic foot gallon
35 441.0 1.2599 29.9 27.53 3.680
36 456.6 1.2684 30.7 28.51 3.811
37 472.5 1.2769 31.4 29.49 3.943
38 488.5 1.2855 32.2 30.49 4.077
39 504.7 1.2941 33.0 31.51 4.212
40 521.1 1.3028 33.7 32.53 4.349
41 537.8 1.3116 34.5 33.57 4.488
42 554.6 1.3205 35.2 34.62 4.628
43 571.6 1.3294 35.9 35.69 4.770
44 588.9 1.3384 36.7 36.76 4.914
45 606.4 1.3476 37.4 37.86 5.061
46 624.2 1.3569 38.1 38.97 5.209
47 642.2 1.3663 38.9 40.00 5.359
48 660.4 1.3758 39.6 41.23 5.511
49 678.8 1.3854 40.3 42.38 5.665
50 697.6 1.3951 41.1 43.55 5.821
51 716.5 1.4049 41.8 44.73 5.979
52 735.7 1.4148 42.5 45.93 6.140
53 755.1 1.4248 43.2 47.14 6.302
54 774.9 1.4350 44.0 48.37 6.467
55 794.9 1.4453 44.7 49.62 6.634
56 815.2 1.4557 45.4 50.89 6.803
57 835.7 1.4662 46.1 52.17 6.974
58 856.5 1.4768 46.8 53.47 7.148
59 877.6 1.4875 47.5 54.79 7.324
60 899.0 1.4983 48.2 56.12 7.502
61 920.6 1.5091 48.9 57.47 7.682
62 942.4 1.5200 49.6 58.83 7.865
63 964.5 1.5310 50.3 60.21 8.049
64 986.9 1.5421 51.0 61.61 8.236
65 1010 1.5533 51.7 63.03 8.426
66 1033 1.5646 52.3 64.46 8.618
67 1056 1.5760 53.0 65.92 8.812
68 1079 1.5874 53.7 67.39 9.008
376
Density/acids
Density and concentration of sulfuric acid (H2SO4) 20°/4 °C
% H2SO4 g per Density ° Bé lbs. per lbs. per
(g/cm3)
litre cubic foot gallon
69 1103 1.5989 54.3 68.87 9.207
70 1127 1.6105 55.0 70.38 9.408
71 1152 1.6221 55.6 71.90 9.611
72 1176 1.6338 56.3 73.44 9.817
73 1201 1.6456 56.9 74.99 10.02
74 1226 1.6574 57.5 76.57 10.24
75 1252 1.6692 58.1 78.15 10.45
76 1278 1.6810 58.7 79.75 10.66
77 1303 1.6927 59.3 81.37 10.88
78 1329 1.7043 59.9 82.99 11.09
79 1355 1.7158 60.5 84.62 11.31
80 1382 1.7272 61.1 86.26 11.53
81 1408 1.7383 61.6 87.90 11.75
82 1434 1.7491 62.1 89.54 11.97
83 1460 1.7594 62.6 91.16 12.19
84 1486 1.7693 63.0 92.78 12.40
85 1512 1.7786 63.5 94.38 12.62
86 1537 1.7872 63.9 95.95 12.83
87 1562 1.7951 64.2 97.49 13.03
88 1586 1.8022 64.5 99.01 13.23
89 1610 1.8087 64.8 100.5 13.43
90 1633 1.8144 65.1 101.9 13.63
91 1656 1.8195 65.3 103.4 13.82
92 1678 1.8240 65.5 104.8 14.00
93 1700 1.8279 65.7 106.1 14.19
94 1721 1.8312 65.8 107.5 14.36
95 1742 1.8337 65.9 108.7 14.54
96 1762 1.8355 66.0 110.0 14.70
97 1781 1.8364 66.0 111.2 14.87
98 1799 1.8361 66.0 112.3 15.02
99 1816 1.8342 65.9 113.4 15.15
100 1831 1.8305 65.8 114.3 15.28
377
Density/acids
Density and concentration of acetic acid (CH3COOH) 20°/4 °C
% g per Density ° Bé lbs. per lbs. per
(g/cm3)
CH3COOH litre cubic foot gallon
1 9.996 0.9996 – 0.6240 0.0834
2 20.02 1.0012 0.2 1.250 0.1671
3 30.08 1.0025 0.4 1.877 0.2510
4 40.16 1.0040 0.6 2.507 0.3351
5 50.28 1.0055 0.8 3.139 0.4196
6 60.41 1.0069 1.0 3.771 0.5042
7 70.58 1.0083 1.2 4.406 0.5890
8 80.78 1.0097 1.4 5.043 0.6741
9 91.00 1.0111 1.6 5.681 0.7504
10 101.3 1.0125 1.8 6.321 0.8450
11 111.5 1.0139 2.0 6.962 0.9307
12 121.8 1.0154 2.2 7.607 1.017
13 132.2 1.0168 2.4 8.252 1.103
14 142.5 1.0182 2.6 8.899 1.190
15 152.9 1.0195 2.8 9.547 1.276
16 163.3 1.0209 3.0 10.20 1.363
17 173.8 1.0223 3.2 10.85 1.450
18 184.2 1.0236 3.3 11.50 1.538
19 194.8 1.0250 3.5 12.16 1.625
20 205.3 1.0263 3.7 12.81 1.713
21 215.8 1.0276 3.9 13.47 1.801
22 226.3 1.0288 4.1 14.13 1.889
23 236.9 1.0301 4.2 14.79 1.977
24 247.5 1.0313 4.4 15.45 2.066
25 258.2 1.0326 4.6 16.12 2.154
26 268.8 1.0338 4.7 16.78 2.243
27 279.4 1.0349 4.9 17.44 2.332
28 290.1 1.0361 5.1 18.11 2.421
29 300.8 1.0372 5.2 18.78 2.510
30 311.5 1.0384 5.4 19.45 2.600
31 322.2 1.0395 5.5 20.12 2.689
32 333.0 1.0406 5.7 20.79 2.779
33 343.8 1.0417 5.8 21.46 2.869
34 354.6 1.0428 6.0 22.13 2.959
378
Density/acids
Density and concentration of acetic acid (CH3COOH) 20°/4 °C
% g per Density ° Bé lbs. per lbs. per
(g/cm3)
CH3COOH litre cubic foot gallon
35 365.3 1.0438 6.1 22.81 3.049
36 376.2 1.0449 6.2 23.48 3.139
37 387.0 1.0459 6.4 24.16 3.229
38 397.8 1.0469 6.5 24.83 3.320
39 408.7 1.0479 6.6 25.51 3.411
40 419.5 1.0488 6.8 26.19 3.501
41 430.4 1.0498 6.9 26.87 3.592
42 441.3 1.0507 7.0 27.55 3.683
43 452.2 1.0516 7.1 28.23 3.774
44 463.1 1.0525 7.2 28.91 3.865
45 474.0 1.0534 7.4 29.59 3.956
46 484.9 1.0542 7.5 30.27 4.047
47 495.9 1.0551 7.6 30.96 4.138
48 506.8 1.0559 7.7 31.64 4.230
49 517.8 1.0567 7.8 32.32 4.321
50 528.8 1.0575 7.9 33.01 4.413
51 539.7 1.0582 8.0 33.69 4.504
52 550.7 1.0590 8.1 34.38 4.596
53 561.6 1.0597 8.2 35.06 4.687
54 572.6 1.0604 8.3 35.75 4.779
55 583.6 1.0611 8.4 36.48 4.870
56 594.6 1.0618 8.4 37.12 4.962
57 605.6 1.0624 8.5 38.49 5.054
58 616.6 1.0631 8.6 39.18 5.146
59 627.6 1.0637 8.7 39.86 5.237
60 638.5 1.0642 8.8 40.55 5.329
61 649.5 1.0648 8.8 41.23 5.420
62 660.5 1.0653 8.9 41.92 5.512
63 671.5 1.0658 9.0 42.60 5.603
64 682.4 1.0662 9.0 43.28 5.695
65 693.3 1.0666 9.1 43.97 5.786
66 704.3 1.0671 9.1 44.65 5.877
67 715.2 1.0675 9.2 45.33 5.969
68 726.1 1.0678 9.2 46.01 6.059
379
Density/acids
Density and concentration of acetic acid (CH3COOH) 20°/4 °C
% g per Density ° Bé lbs. per lbs. per
(g/cm3)
CH3COOH litre cubic foot gallon
69 737.1 1.0682 9.3 46.01 6.151
70 748.0 1.0685 9.3 46.69 6.242
71 758.8 1.0687 9.3 47.37 6.332
72 769.7 1.0690 9.4 48.05 6.423
73 780.6 1.0693 9.4 48.73 6.514
74 791.4 1.0694 9.4 49.40 6.604
75 802.2 1.0696 9.4 50.08 6.695
76 813.0 1.0698 9.5 50.76 6.785
77 823.8 1.0699 9.5 51.43 6.875
78 834.6 1.0700 9.5 52.10 6.965
79 845.3 1.0700 9.5 52.77 7.054
80 856.0 1.0700 9.5 53.44 7.143
81 866.6 1.0699 9.5 54.10 7.232
82 877.2 1.0698 9.5 54.76 7.321
83 887.8 1.0696 9.4 55.42 7.409
84 898.2 1.0693 9.4 56.07 7.496
85 908.6 1.0689 9.4 56.72 7.582
86 918.9 1.0685 9.3 57.36 7.668
87 929.2 1.0680 9.2 58.00 7.754
88 939.4 1.0675 9.2 58.64 7.839
89 949.5 1.0668 9.1 59.27 7.923
90 950.5 1.0661 9.0 60.51 8.007
92 979.2 1.0643 8.8 61.13 8.171
94 998.2 1.0619 8.5 62.31 8.330
96 1016 1.0588 8.1 63.45 8.482
98 1034 1.0549 7.6 64.54 8.627
100 1050 1.0498 6.9 65.04 8.761
Note: If the volume weight of an acetic acid lies at d = 1.0553 and higher
(equivalent to 7.7 and more degrees Baumé) this density corresponds
to two different concentrations (e. g., d = 1.0660 or 9.0 °Bé = 64 % or
90 %). In order to determine as to which value is correct, add some water
to the acid: if the volume weight rises, the higher value is correct, and if it
decreases, the lower value is correct.
380
Density/acids
Density and concentration of hydrochloric acid (HCl)
° Bé % HCl Density ° Bé % HCl Density
(g/cm3) (g/cm3)
1.00 1.40 1.0069 13.00 19.63 1.0985
2.00 2.82 1.0140 13.25 20.04 1.1006
3.00 4.25 1.0211 13.50 20.45 1.1027
4.00 5.69 1.0284 13.75 20.86 1.1048
5.00 7.15 1.0357 14.00 21.27 1.1069
5.25 7.52 1.0394 14.25 21.68 1.1090
5.50 7.89 1.0413 14.50 22.00 1.1111
5.75 8.26 1.0432 14.75 22.50 1.1132
6.00 8.64 1.0450 15.00 22.92 1.1154
6.25 9.02 1.0469 15.25 23.33 1.1176
6.50 9.40 1.0488 15.50 23.75 1.1197
6.75 9.78 1.0507 15.75 24.16 1.1219
7.00 10.17 1.0526 16.0 24.57 1.1240
7.25 10.55 1.0545 16.1 24.73 1.1248
7.50 10.94 1.0564 16.2 24.90 1.1256
7.75 11.32 1.0584 16.3 25.06 1.1265
8.00 11.71 1.0603 16.4 25.23 1.1274
8.25 12.09 1.0623 16.5 25.39 1.1283
8.50 12.48 1.0642 16.6 25.56 1.1292
8.75 12.87 1.0662 16.7 25.72 1.1301
9.00 13.26 1.0681 16.8 25.89 1.1310
9.25 13.65 1.0701 16.9 26.05 1.1319
9.50 14.04 1.0721 17.0 26.22 1.1328
9.75 14.43 1.0741 17.1 26.39 1.1336
10.00 14.83 1.0761 17.2 26.56 1.1345
10.25 15.22 1.0781 17.3 26.73 1.1354
10.50 15.62 1.0801 17.4 26.90 1.1363
10.75 16.01 1.0821 17.5 27.07 1.1372
11.00 16.41 1.0841 17.6 27.24 1.1381
11.25 16.81 1.0861 17.7 27.41 1.1390
11.50 17.21 1.0881 17.8 27.58 1.1399
11.75 17.61 1.0902 17.9 27.75 1.1408
12.00 18.01 1.0922 18.0 27.92 1.1417
12.25 18.41 1.0932 18.1 28.09 1.1426
12.50 18.82 1.0943 18.2 28.26 1.1435
12.75 19.22 1.0964 18.3 28.44 1.1444
381
Density/acids
Density and concentration of hydrochloric acid (HCl)
° Bé % HCl Density ° Bé % HCl Density
(g/cm3) (g/cm3)
18.4 28.61 1.1453 22.0 35.21 1.1789
18.5 28.78 1.1462 22.1 35.40 1.1798
18.6 28.95 1.1471 22.2 35.59 1.1808
18.7 29.13 1.1480 22.3 35.78 1.1817
18.8 29.30 1.1489 22.4 35.97 1.1827
18.9 29.48 1.1498 22.5 36.16 1.1836
19.0 29.65 1.1508 22.6 36.35 1.1846
19.1 29.83 1.1517 22.7 36.54 1.1856
19.2 30.00 1.1526 22.8 36.73 1.1866
19.3 30.18 1.1535 22.9 36.93 1.1875
19.4 30.35 1.1544 23.0 37.14 1.1885
19.5 30.53 1.1554 23.1 37.36 1.1895
19.6 30.71 1.1563 23.2 37.58 1.1904
19.7 30.90 1.1572 23.3 37.80 1.1914
19.8 31.08 1.1581 23.4 38.03 1.1924
19.9 31.27 1.1590 23.5 38.26 1.1934
20.0 31.45 1.1600 23.6 38.49 1.1944
20.1 31.64 1.1609 23.7 38.72 1.1953
20.2 31.82 1.1619 23.8 38.95 1.1963
20.3 32.01 1.1628 23.9 39.18 1.1973
20.4 32.19 1.1637 24.0 39.41 1.1983
20.5 32.38 1.1647 24.1 39.64 1.1993
20.6 32.56 1.1656 24.2 39.86 1.2003
20.7 32.75 1.1666 24.3 40.09 1.2013
20.8 33.03 1.1675 24.4 40.32 1.2023
20.9 33.12 1.1684 24.5 40.55 1.2033
21.0 33.31 1.1694 24.6 40.78 1.2043
21.1 33.50 1.1703 24.7 41.01 1.2053
21.2 33.69 1.1713 24.8 41.24 1.2063
21.3 33.88 1.1722 24.9 41.48 1.2073
21.4 34.07 1.1732 25.0 41.72 1.2083
21.5 34.26 1.1741 25.1 41.99 1.2093
21.6 34.45 1.1751 25.2 42.30 1.2103
21.7 34.64 1.1760 25.3 42.64 1.2114
21.8 34.83 1.1770 25.4 43.01 1.2124
21.9 35.02 1.1779 25.5 43.40 1.2134
382
Density/acids
Density and concentration of oxalic acid [(COOH)2 ·2H2O] at 15 °C
% Oxalic acid Density g per litre
g/cm3
· 2 H 2O
1 1.0032 10.03
2 1.0064 20.13
3 1.0096 30.29
4 1.0128 40.51
5 1.0160 50.80
6 1.0182 61.09
7 1.0204 71.43
8 1.0226 81.81
9 1.0248 92.23
10 1.0271 102.71
11 1.0289 113.18
12 1.0309 123.71
12.6 1.0320 130.03
383
Density/salts
Salts
Density and concentration of ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) at 20 °C
% ammonium Density g per litre
g/cm3
chloride
1 1.0013 10.01
2 1.0045 20.09
4 1.0107 40.43
6 1.0168 61.01
8 1.0227 81.82
10 1.0286 102.86
12 1.0344 124.13
14 1.0401 145.61
16 1.0457 167.31
18 1.0512 189.22
20 1.0567 211.34
22 1.0621 233.66
26 1.0726 278.88
Density and concentration of ammonium sulfate [(NH4)2 SO4] at 20 °C
% ammonium- Density g per litre
g/cm3
sulfate
1 1.0041 10.04
2 1.0101 20.20
4 1.0220 40.88
6 1.0338 62.03
8 1.0456 83.65
10 1.0574 105.74
12 1.0691 128.29
14 1.0808 151.31
16 1.0924 174.78
18 1.1039 198.70
20 1.1154 223.08
24 1.1383 273.19
28 1.1609 325.05
30 1.1721 351.63
35 1.2000 420.00
40 1.2277 491.08
50 1.2825 641.25
384
Density/salts
Density and concentration of sodium acetate (CH3COONa) at 17.5 °C
Density (g/cm3)
% CH3COONa % CH3COONa·3H2O
3.015 5 1.015
6.030 10 1.031
9.045 15 1.047
12.060 20 1.063
15.075 25 1.0795
18.090 30 1.0960
21.105 35 1.1130
24.120 40 1.1305
27.135 45 1.1485
30.150 50 1.1670
Density and concentration of sodium chloride (NaCl) at 20 °C
% g per Density ° Bé lbs. per lbs. per
(g/cm3)
NaCl litre cubic foot gallon
1 10.05 1.0053 0.8 0.6276 0.0839
2 20.25 1.0125 1.8 1.264 0.1690
4 41.07 1.0268 3.8 2.564 0.3428
6 62.48 1.0413 5.8 3.900 0.5214
8 84.47 1.0559 7.7 5.273 0.7049
10 107.1 1.0707 9.6 6.684 0.8935
12 130.3 1.0857 11.5 8.133 1.087
14 154.1 1.1009 13.3 9.622 1.286
16 178.6 1.1162 15.1 11.15 1.490
18 203.7 1.1319 16.9 12.72 1.700
20 229.6 1.1478 18.7 14.33 1.916
22 256.1 1.1640 20.4 15.99 2.137
24 283.3 1.1804 22.2 17.69 2.364
26 311.3 1.1972 23.9 19.43 2.598
385
Density/salts
Density and concentration of sodium sulfate (Na2SO4) 20°/4 °C
% g per Density ° Bé lbs. per lbs. per
(g/cm3)
Na2SO4 litre cubic foot gallon
1 10.07 1.0073 1.1 0.6288 0.0841
2 20.33 1.0164 2.3 1.269 0.1696
4 41.39 1.0348 4.9 2.584 0.3454
6 63.21 1.0535 7.4 3.946 0.5275
8 85.79 1.0724 9.8 5.356 0.7160
10 109.2 1.0915 12.2 6.814 0.9109
12 133.3 1.1109 14.5 8.322 1.112
14 158.3 1.1306 16.8 9.881 1.321
16 184.1 1.1506 19.0 11.49 1.536
18 210.8 1.1709 21.2 13.16 1.759
20 238.3 1.1915 23.3 14.88 1.989
22 266.7 1.2124 25.4 16.65 2.226
24 296.1 1.2336 27.5 18.48 2.471
Density and concentration of sodium sulfate cryst.
(Na2SO4·10H2O) 20°/4 °C
% g per Density ° Bé lbs. per lbs. per
(g/cm3)
Na2SO4 · litre cubic foot gallon
10H2O
2.268 22.85 1.0073 1.1 1.426 0.1907
4.536 46.11 1.0164 2.3 2.878 0.3848
9.073 93.88 1.0348 4.9 5.861 0.7835
13.61 143.4 1.0535 7.4 8.950 1.197
18.15 194.6 1.0724 9.8 12.15 1.624
22.68 247.6 1.0915 12.2 15.46 2.066
27.22 302.4 1.1109 14.5 18.88 2.523
31.75 359.0 1.1306 16.8 22.41 2.996
36.29 417.6 1.1506 19.0 26.07 3.485
40.83 478.1 1.1709 21.2 29.84 3.989
45.36 540.5 1.1915 23.3 33.74 4.511
49.90 605.0 1.2124 25.4 37.77 5.049
54.44 671.5 1.2336 27.5 41.92 5.604
386
Density/salts
Density and concentration of sodium sulfite (Na2SO3) at 15 °C
Density °Bé % Na2SO3 % SO2
(g/cm3)
1.008 1 0.6 0.4
1.015 2 1.3 0.9
1.022 3 2.1 1.3
1.030 4 2.8 1.7
1.038 5 3.6 2.2
1.045 6 4.3 2.6
1.052 7 5.1 3.1
1.060 8 5.8 3.5
1.068 9 6.5 3.9
1.076 10 7.2 4.3
1.084 11 8.0 4.8
1.092 12 8.8 5.2
1.100 13 9.5 5.7
1.108 14 10.3 6.2
1.116 15 11.2 6.8
1.125 16 12.0 7.3
1.134 17 12.8 7.8
1.143 18 13.7 8.4
1.152 19 14.6 9.0
1.161 20 15.5 9.6
1.171 21 16.5 10.2
1.181 22 17.5 10.8
1.190 23 18.5 11.5
1.200 24 19.7 12.2
1.210 25 20.9 12.9
1.220 26 22.2 13.7
1.230 27 23.5 14.5
1.241 28 24.7 15.2
1.252 29 25.9 15.9
1.263 30 27.4 16.8
1.275 31 28.9 17.8
1.286 32 30.3 18.7
1.298 33 31.7 19.6
1.309 34 33.2 21.0
1.321 35 34.7 22.5
1.333 36 36.4 23.0
1.345 37 38.0 23.6
387
Density/salts
Density and concentration of sodium bisulfite (NaHSO3) at 15 °C
% g per Density ° Bé lbs. per lbs. per
(g/cm3)
NaHSO3 litre cubic foot gallon
1.02 10.27 1.0069 1 0.6411 0.0857
2.04 20.69 1.0140 2 1.291 0.1726
3.06 31.25 1.0211 3 1.951 0.2607
4.08 41.96 1.0284 4 2.619 0.3502
5.11 52.92 1.0357 5 3.304 0.4417
6.15 64.16 1.0432 6 4.005 0.5354
7.19 75.55 1.0507 7 4.716 0.6304
8.24 87.21 1.0584 8 5.444 0.7278
9.30 99.16 1.0662 9 6.190 0.8275
10.36 111.3 1.0741 10 6.947 0.9286
11.42 123.6 1.0821 11 7.714 1.031
12.48 136.1 1.0902 12 8.493 1.135
13.56 149.0 1.0985 13 9.299 1.243
14.65 162.2 1.1069 14 10.12 1.353
15.75 175.7 1.1154 15 10.97 1.466
16.85 189.4 1.1240 16 11.82 1.581
17.96 203.5 1.1328 17 12.70 1.698
19.08 217.8 1.1417 18 13.60 1.818
20.20 232.5 1.1508 19 14.51 1.940
21.32 247.3 1.1600 20 15.44 2.064
22.44 262.4 1.1694 21 16.38 2.190
23.57 277.9 1.1789 22 17.35 2.319
24.71 293.7 1.1885 23 18.22 2.451
25.85 309.8 1.1983 24 19.34 2.585
26.99 326.1 1.2083 25 20.36 2.722
28.13 342.8 1.2185 26 21.40 2.860
29.27 359.7 1.2288 27 22.45 3.001
30.43 377.1 1.2393 28 23.54 3.147
31.57 394.6 1.2500 29 24.63 3.293
32.71 412.4 1.2609 30 25.75 3.442
33.86 430.7 1.2719 31 26.88 3.594
35.01 449.2 1.2832 32 28.04 3.749
36.25 469.3 1.2946 33 29.30 3.916
37.51 490.0 1.3063 34 30.59 4.089
388
Density/salts
Density and concentration of sodium thiosulfate
(Na2S2O3·5H2O) at 20 °C
Density (g/cm3) % Na2S2O3·5H2O g per litre
1.0065 1.57 15.8
1.0148 3.14 31.8
1.0315 6.28 64.7
1.0483 9.42 98.7
1.0654 12.56 133.8
1.0827 15.70 170.0
1.1003 18.84 207.3
1.1182 21.98 245.7
1.1365 25.12 285.4
1.1551 28.25 326.4
1.1740 31.39 368.6
1.1932 34.53 412.1
1.2128 37.67 456.9
1.2328 40.81 503.1
1.2532 43.95 550.8
1.2739 47.09 599.9
1.3273 54.94 729.2
1.3827 62.79 868.2
389
Technical literature
Technical literature
A. Books*
1. Bibliothek des Leders
Herausgeber: Prof. Dr. Ing. habil. Hans Herfeld
1. Auflage 1981 –1990
Umschau Verlag – Frankfurt am Main
– Band 1: H. Herfeld
Die tierische Haut (1990)
– Band 2: A. Zissel
Arbeiten der Wasserwerkstatt bei der Lederherstellung (1987)
– Band 3: K. Faber
Gerbmittel, Gerbung und Nachgerbung (1984)
– Band 4: M. Hollstein
Entfetten, Fetten und Hydrophobieren bei der Lederherstellung (1988)
– Band 5: K. Eitel
Das Färben von Leder (1987)
– Band 6: R. Schubert
Lederzurichtung – Oberflächenbehandlung des Leders (1982)
– Band 7: H. Herfeld
Rationalisierung der Lederherstellung durch Mechanisierung und
Automatisierung – Gerbereimaschinen (1990)
– Band 8: L. Feikes
Ökologische Probleme der Lederindustrie (1985)
– Band 9: H. Pfisterer
Energieeinsatz in der Lederindustrie (1985)
– Band 10: J. Lange
Qualitätsbeurteilung von Leder, Lederfehler, Lederlagerung und
Lederpflege (1982)
2. Gerbereichemie und Gerbereitechnologie
Dr. phil. habil. Fritz Stather
4. Auflage 1967
Akademie Verlag – Berlin
390
Technical literature
3. The Chemistry and Technology of Leather
Fred O’Flaherty, William T. Roddy, Robert M. Lollar
1st edition 1956 – 1965
Volume 1 Preparation for Tannage (1956)
Volume 2 Types of Tannage (1958)
Volume 3 Process Control of Leather Quality (1961)
Volume 4 Evaluation of Leather (1965)
Reinhold Publishing Corporation – New York/USA
4. Leather Technician’s Handbook
J. H. Sharphouse
2nd edition 1972/reprint 1975
Leather Producers’ Association – London/UK
5. Lederherstellung
Dr. K. Pauligk/Gerberei-Obering. R. Hagen
2. Auflage 1983
Fachbuchverlag – Leipzig
6. Ledertechnik
Dr. W. Werner
1. Auflage 1979
Fachbuchverlag – Leipzig
7. Das Färben des Leders
Dr. Gerhard Otto
1. Auflage 1962
Eduard Roether KG – D-64212 Darmstadt
8. La Nourriture du Cuir
Dr. Jean Poré
1st edition 1974
Société des Publications “Le Cuir” – Paris/F
9. Gerbereichemisches Taschenbuch
Dr. A. Küntzel
6. Auflage 1955
Verlag Theodor Steinkopff – Dresden/Leipzig
10. Official Methods of Analysis
4th edition 1965 (with supplements)
Society of Leather Technologists and Chemists; Redbourn, Herts./UK
391
Technical literature
11. Practical Leather Technology
T. C. Thorstensen
2nd edition 1976
Reinhold Publishing Corporation – New York/USA
12. Physical Chemistry of Leather Making
K. Bienkiewicz, R. E. Krieger
1st edition 1983
Publishing Company – Malabar Florida/USA
13. Rauchwarenherstellung und Pelzkonfektion
Autorenkollektiv
1. Auflage 1979
Fachbuchverlag – Leipzig
14. Lederwörterbuch in sechs Sprachen
Dr. G. Otto/Antoni Yila-Catalá
1. Auflage 1976
Eduard Roether KG – D-64212 Darmstadt
15. Leather Guide
International Directory of the Industry (published annually)
Benn Publications Ltd. – Tunbridge Wells, Kent/UK
16. Fundamentals of Leather Manufacturing
Prof. Dr. E. Heidemann
1st edition 1993
Eduard Roether KG – D-64212 Darmstadt
17. Possible defects in leather production
Gerberei-Ing. Gerhard John
1. Auflage 1997
Selbstverlag – D-68623 Lampertheim
18. Praktische Farbmessung
Berger-Schunn
2. Auflage 1994
Muster-Schmidt Verlag, Göttingen, Zürich
19. Principles of Color Technology
F. W. Billmeyer Jr., M. Saltzmann
2. Auflage 1981
Wiley, New York
* Some titles are currently not available
392
Technical literature
B. Selection of Journals (devoted mainly to pure science)
1. Journal of the Society of Leather Technologists and Chemists
(published bimonthly)
Society of Leather Trades’ Chemists
49 North Park Street
Dewsbury, West Yorkshire, GB
2. The Journal of the American Leather Chemists Association
(published monthly)
330 White Falls Drive
Columbia, SC, USA
C. Selection of Journals (devoted mainly to practice)
1. Leder- und Häutemarkt (published every two weeks)
Spezialfachzeitschrift für die Lederindustrie, den Häute- und Leder-
großhandel mit Beilage: Gerbereiwissenschaft und Praxis.
Umschau-Verlag – Frankfurt am Main, Germany
2. Leather International (published monthly)
Polygon Media Ltd.
Tubs Hill House
London Road/Seven Oaks,
Kent, GB
3. IDC Industries du Cuir (published monthly)
14, rue de la Folie-Regnault
75011 Paris, France
4. World Leather (published monthly)
Shoes Trades Publishing Company
P.O. Box 6, 36, Crosby Road North
Liverpool, GB
5. La Conceria S. R. L. (published weekly)
Via Brisa 3,
20123 Milano, Italy
393
Abbreviations of commercial terms
International commercial terms
a.a.r. against all risks
a.r. all risks
A.C. American conditions
A/T American terms
acct. account
Av. average
B.L. bill of lading
C.A.D. cash against documents
C.B.D. cash before delivery
c. & f. cost and freight
c. & i. cost and insurance
C/I certificate of insurance
C.I.A. cash in advance
c.i.f. cost, insurance and freight
c.i.f. & c. cost, insurance, freight and commission
c.i.f.c. & i. cost, insurance, freight, commission and interest
c.o.d (COD) cash on delivery
c.o.s. cash on shipment
c.p.t. cost paid for transportation
C.W.O. cash with order
D.A. deposit account
394
Abbreviations of commercial terms
D.A.D. document account disposition
D.A.F. delivery at frontier
D.D.V. delivery at destination undeclared
D.E.Q. delivery at quayside
D.E.S. delivery ex ship
d.f. dead freight
D/N debit note
D.O. (d/o) delivery order
D/P documents against payment
D.W dock warrent
E.c. English conditions
E. & O.E. errors and omissions excluded
E.O.M. end of month
E.X.N. delivery ex works
f.a.a. free of all average
F.A.S. free alongside ship
f.o.t. free on truck
f.p.a. free of particular average
frt.pp. freight prepaid
g.a. general average
I.B. in bond
Int. interset
395
Abbreviations of commercial terms
i.P.A. including part average
I.T. immediate transportation
L/C letter of credit
L. & D. loss and damage
M.D. months’ date
M.I.P. maritime insurance policy
M/P months after payment
N/T new terms
n.wt. net weight
O.P. open policy
O.R. owner’s risk
O.R.D. owner’s risk damage
O/T old terms
P/a part average
P.L. part loss
P/N promissory note
P.O.D. pay on delivery
ppd. prepaid
ppt. prompt
r.c.c. & s. riots, civil commotions and strikes
rect(rept) receipt
R.I. reinsurance
396
Abbreviations of commercial terms
RP reply paid
S. (sgd) signed
S.D.B.L. sight draft and bill lof lading
S. & F.A. ship broker ad forwarding agent
s.g. (sp.gr.) specific gravity
S/N shipping note
S/S steamship
T/A trade acceptance
t.l.o. total loss only
t.q. tel quel
tr. tara
u.c. usual conditions
u.t. usual terms
U/w underwriter
W.B. waybill
w.g. weight guaranteed
w/m weight or measure
W.R. war risk
W/R warehouse receipt
wt weight
W/W warehouse warrant
397
World time zones
Standard time in World time zones
The table below shows the standard local time at various places
in the different world time zones when it is 12.00 (CET) noon in Berlin
(Germany).
(*Time kept one hour in advance of the actual time during summer.)
Place Time Place Time
Accra (Ghana) 11.00 Helsinki (Finland) 13.00
Algiers (Algeria) 12.00 Hongkong 19.00
Alma-Ata (Kazakhstan) 16.00 Honolulu (Hawaii) 1.00
Amsterdam (Netherlands) 12.00
Istanbul (Turkey) 13.00
Angmagssalik (Greenland) 8.00
Jakarta (Indonesia) 18.00
Antwerp (Belgium) 12.00
Jerusalem (Israel) 13.00
Athens (Greece) 13.00
Johannesburg (South Africa) 13.00
Baghdad (Iraq) 14.00
Kabul (Afghanistan) 15.30
Bangkok (Thailand) 18.00
Karachi (Pakistan) 16.00
Belgrade (Yugoslavia) 12.00
Kiev (Ukraine) 13.00
Bern (Switzerland) 12.00
Kingsbay (Spitzbergen) 12.00
Bogota (Colombia) 6.00
Kuala Lumpur (Malaysia) 19.00
Bombay (India) 16.30
Bratislawa (Slovakia) 12.00
Las Palmas (Canary Islands) 11.00
Brussels (Belgium) 12.00
Lisbon (Portugal) 12.00
Budapest (Hungary) 12.00
London (Great Britain) 11.00
Buenos Aires (Argentine) 8.00
Los Angeles (USA) * 3.00
Bukarest (Romania) 13.00
Ljubljana (Slovenia) 12.00
Cairo (Egypt) *13.00
Madrid (Spain) 12.00
Caracas (Venezuela) 6.30
Manila (Philippines) 19.00
Casablanca (Morocco) 11.00
Masqat (Saudi Arabia) 15.00
Chicago (USA) * 5.00
Melbourne (Australia) 21.00
Chunking (China) 19.00
Mexico City (Mexico) 5.00
Colombo (Ceylon) 16.30
Milan (Italy) 12.00
Copenhagen (Denmark) 12.00
Minsk (White Russia) 14.00
Dakar (West Africa) 11.00
Montreal (Canada) * 6.00
Dublin (Ireland) 11.00
Moscow (Russia) *13.00
Glasgow (Scotland) *11.00
New York (USA) * 6.00
Guatemala (Central America) 5.00
Nome (Alaska) * 0.00
398
World time zones
Place Time
Oslo (Norway) *12.00
Panama 6.00
Paris (France) 12.00
Peking (China) 19.00
Prague (Czech Rep.) 12.00
Rangoon (Burma) 17.30
Reykjavik (Iceland) *10.00
Riga (Latvia) 13.00
Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) 8.00
Rome (Italy) 12.00
San Francisco (USA) * 3.00
Santiago de Chile 8.00
Seoul (Korea) 20.00
Singapore 19.00
Sofia (Bulgaria) 13.00
Stockholm (Sweden) 12.00
St. Petersburg (Russia) *14.00
Sidney (Australia) 21.00
Tashkent (Uzbekistan) 17.00
Tenerife (Canary Islands) 11.00
Tokio (Japan) 20.00
Vancouver (Canada) * 3.00
Venice (Italy) 12.00
Vienna (Austria) 12.00
Warsaw (Poland) *12.00
Zagreb (Croatia) 12.00
399
Adresses
BASF Aktiengesellschaft
Postal address: Carl-Bosch-Straße 38
67056 Ludwigshafen
Telephone: (06 21) 60-0 (switchboard)
Direct line: (06 21) 60-...
Telefax: (06 21) 60-4 25 25
Telex: 46499-0 bas d
E-Mail: info.serice@basf-ag.de
Website: www.basf-ag.de
Performance Chemicals for Leather
BASF Aktiengesellschaft Tel (49) 621 60-99504
Telefax (49) 621 60 99381
Global Business Management E-Mail leather-info@basf-ag.de
Performance Chemicals Website www.basf.com/leather
for Leather
BASF South East Asia Pte. Ltd. Tel (65) 432 34 38
Regional Business Unit Telefax (65) 432 34 10
Performance Chemicals for
Leather Asia
BASF Corporation Tel (1) 704 398 42 09
Regional Business Unit Telefax (1) 704 398 42 82
Performance Chemicals for
Leather NAFTA
BASF S.A. Tel (55) 11 4343 2968
Regional Business Unit Telefax (55) 11 4343 2216
Performance Chemicals for
Leather South America
400
Adresses
BASF Curtex S.A. Tel (34) 93 2 61 61 00
Regional Business Unit Telefax (34) 93 2 61 62 11
Performance Chemicals for
Leather Europe
BASF Aktiengesellschaft Tel (49) 621 60-44547
Regional Marketing Telefax (49) 621 60 44618
Eastern Europe, Africa,
Western Asia
401
Adresses
BASF Representatives
Algeria
BASF SPA Tel 21 603493
13, Rue Arezki Abri 21 603581
Hydra 21 603589
16035 Alger Telefax 21 693811
E-Mail basf@djazair-connect.com
Argentine
BASF Argentina S.A. Tel 11 4317-9600
Av. Corrientes 327 Telefax 11 4317-9700
C1043 AAD Buenos Aires E-Mail rrpp@basf-arg.com.ar
Casilla de Correo Website www.basf.com.ar
Central 4800
C1000 Buenos Aires
Australia
BASF Australia Ltd. Tel 3 92121500
500 Princes Highway Telefax 3 92121511
Noble Park Vic. 3174
G.P.O. Box 4705
Melbourne Vic. 3001
Austria
BASF Österreich Ges.m.b.H. BCN 8-760-66 (operator)
Hietzinger Hauptstraße 119 8-760-nnn (direct line)
Postfach 1000 Tel 1 87890-0 (operator)
1131 Wien 1 87890-... (direct line)
Telefax 1 87890-110
Website www.basf.at
Bahrain
Yusuf Bin Ahmed Kanoo Tel 738200
Commercial Division Telefax 732828
P.O. Box 45
Manama
402
Adresses
Bangladesh
BASF Bangladesh Limited Tel 2 8313479
H.R. Bhaban (4th floor) 2 9348374
26/1, Kakrail Road 2 9348375
P.O. Box 410 2 9348376
Dhaka-1000 Telefax 2 8313599
E-Mail basfdhak@citechco.net
Website www.basf-bangla.com
Belarus
BASF CIS Trading GmbH Tel 172 239042
Agency in Belarus 172 239024
Pr. Masherova 5 172 893042
220004 Minsk 172 233114
172 239133
172 239826
172 893079
Telefax 172 239013
Belgium
BASF Belgium S.A./N.V. BCN 8-39-2111 (operator)
Avenue Hamoir 14/ 8-39-nnnn (direct line)
Hamoirlaan 14 Tel 2 373-2111 (operator)
1180 Bruxelles/Brussel 2 373-.... (direct line)
Telefax 2 3751042
Website www.basf-belg.be
Bolivia
BASF Bolivia S.R.L. Tel 3 3377262
Av. Monseñor Riveros esq. Fax 3 3377263
Asunción
1° Piso- Edificio Citibank
Casilla 7185
Santa Cruz
Brazil
BASF S.A. BCN 8-52-2233 (operator)
Estrada Samuel 8-52-nnnn (direct line)
Aizemberg 1707 Tel 11 4343-2233
09851-550 São Bernardo Telefax 11 4343-6989
do Campo – SP
403
Adresses
Bulgaria
BASF EOOD Tel 2 9516178 (operator)
WV Ivan Vasov Balscha Str. 1 2 9516973
1408 Sofia 2 9519286
Telefax 2 9516579
2 9549638
Canada
BASF Canada Tel 416 675-3611
345 Carlingview Drive Telefax 416 674-2588
Toronto, Ontario M9W 6N9
Chile
BASF Chile S.A. Tel 2 6407-000
Av. Carrascal 3851 Telefax 2 6407-107 (GL)
7360081 Santiago de Chile 2 7753095
Casilla 3238 (Distribution)
6501020 Santiago de Chile 2 7737542
(Import)
2 7736101
(Agro)
E-Mail rrpp@basf-chile.cl
China (cf. Hongkong)
BASF (China) Co Ltd. BCN 8-682-0 (operator)
15/F, Beijing Sunflower 8-682-nnnn (direct line)
Tower Tel 10 65918899
No. 37, Maizidian Street Telefax 10 85275599
Chaoyang District
Beijing 100026
Colombia
BASF Química BCN 8-634-1nnn (direct line)
Colombiana S.A. 8-634-2nnn (direct line)
Calle 99A No. 51-32 Tel 1 6322260
A.A. 5751 y 7072 Telefax 1 6242646
Bogotá (Management)
404
Adresses
Costa Rica
BASF de Costa Rica, S.A. Tel 2 538066
100 m al este del Telefax 2 342449
Taller Wabe E-Mail basfcr@racsa.co.cr
Granadilla Norte de
Curridabat
San José
Croatia
BASF Croatia d.o.o. BCN 8-7735-243 (operator)
Vlaska 40 8-7735-nnn (direct line)
10000 Zagreb Tel 1 4814243
1 4814238
Telefax 1 4814246
1 4814224
Cuba
BASF Dominicana S.A. Tel 7 246225
Sucursal de Cuba 7 246226
Calle 3ra No. 3406 Apto. 3C Telefax 7 246026
e/34 y 36, Miramar, Playa E-Mail bdc@ip.etecsa.cu
La Habana
Apartado Postal 4009
Vedado, La Habana
Czech Republic
BASF spol. s r.o. BCN 8-763-111 (operator)
Safrankova 3 8-763-nnn (direct line)
15500 Praha 5 Tel 2 35000111
Telefax 2 35000222
E-Mail info@basf.cz
Website www.basf.cz
Denmark
BASF A/S BCN 8-740-700 (operator)
– Agro Nordic/Baltic 8-740-nnn (direct line)
– Fine Chemicals Tel 32660700
Nordic/Baltic Telefax 32572202
Ved Stadsgraven 15 E-Mail basf-dk@nordic.basf.org
Postboks 1734 Website www.basf.com/nordic
2300 Kopenhagen
405
Adresses
Dominican Republic
BASF Dominicana S.A. Tel 3341026
Plaza RRJ, 5320088
3er nivel – Bella Vista Telefax 3341027
Av. Romulo Betancourt E-Mail basf.dom@codetel.net.do
No. 279
Santo Domingo
Ecuador
BASF Ecuatoriana S.A. Tel 22 541-100
Av. República 500 22 541-291
Edificio Pucara, Piso 12 22 569368
Casilla de Correo (General manager)
17-01-3255 Telefax 22 509-194
Quito 22 509-195
Egypt
BASF Limited Tel (2) 7356210
11, Abu el Feda Street Telefax (2) 7364710
11211 Zamalek – Cairo E-Mail basf.egypt@africa.basf.org
El Salvador
BASF de El Salvador, Tel 2895420
S.A. de C.V. Telefax 2784299
Calle L-2 No 21,
Ciudad Merliot
La Libertad
Estonia
see under Lithuania
Finland
BASF Oy Tel 9 61598-1
– Paper Nordic/Baltic Telefax 9 61598-250
Annankatu 42 C E-Mail basf-fi@nordic.basf.org
PL 500 Website www.basf.com/nordic
00101 Helsinki
406
Adresses
France
BASF France S.A. BCN 8-31-5000 (operator)
49, avenue Georges 8-31-nnnn (direct line)
Pompidou Tel 1 4964-5000 (operator)
92593 Levallois Perret 1 4964-.... (direct line)
Cedex Telefax 1 4964-5050
Telex basfc 620445f
Greece
Dr. D.A. Delis AG Tel 10 3297222
Paleologou Benizelou 5 Telefax 10 3230550
10556 Athínai 10 3297300
Cable delichimik
Guatemala
BASF de Guatemala S.A. Tel 4 774659 PBX
Avenida Petapo 47 – 31, Telefax 4 774680
Zona 12
Apartado Postal 850
Ciudad de Guatemala
Haiti
Walter Hirsch AdM Tel 225903
Mr. Werner Hirsch 222042
12, Rue du Quai Telefax 225903
P.O. Box 248 231886
Port-au-Prince E-Mail whirsch@acn.com
Honduras
P.A.Y.S.E.N., S.A. de C.V. Tel 2 283156
Edificio P.A.Y.S.E.N., 2 283157
S.A. de C.V. 2 283155
Colonia Altos de Miraflores Sur 2 283213
Atrás del plantel de Telefax 2 283158
Hogares – SOVIPE E-Mail paysen.basf@hn2.com
Apartado Postal 252
Tegucigalpa, D.C.
Hungary
BASF Hungária Kft. BCN 8-761-700 (operator)
Seregély u. 1-5. 8-761-7nn (direct line)
1034 Budapest Tel 1 2504111
1 2509700
Telefax 1 2504660
1 2504661
407
Adresses
Iceland
see Denmark
India
BASF India Limited Tel 22 4930703
Rhône-Poulenc House Telefax 22 4950512
Sudam Kalu Ahire Marg. 22 4941612
P. O. Box 19108
Mumbai-400 025
Indonesia
P.T. BASF Indonesia Tel 21 5262481
Main Office 21 5262505
Plaza GRI, 10th & 11th floor Telefax 21 5262541
Jl. H.R. Rasuna Said 21 5262515
Blok X-2/No. 1
Jakarta 12950
P.O. Box 2431 Gbr.
Jakarta 10024
Iran
BASF Iran AG Tel 21 8768403
Sohrevardi Shomali Ave. 21 8768237
Kangavar Alley-No 5 21 8764840
Teheran 21 8769542
P.O. Box 1365-4619 Telefax 21 8762894
Teheran 15579 E-Mail basf_m_iran@mftmail.com
Ireland
BASF Ireland Limited Tel 1 8255701
Bracetown Business Park Telefax 1 8252038
Clonee E-Mail basfirl@indigo.ie
Co. Meath
Italy
BASF Italia Spa BCN 8-722-111 (operator)
Management, Sales and Factory 8-722-nnn (direct line)
Via Marconato 8 Tel 0362 512-1 (operator)
20031 Cesano Maderno Ml 0362 512-... (direct line)
Telefax 0362 512-210
408
Adresses
Japan
BASF Japan Ltd. BCN 8-501-nnn (direct line)
Osaka Office Tel 6 6266-nnnn (direct line)
1-8-15, Azuchimachi, 6 6266-6801
Chuo-ku (BM Specialties)
Osaka 541-0052 Telefax 6 6266-6956
(BM Specialties)
Jordan
Yordan Obégi & Co. Tel 6 5682044
Smeisani. Amman 6 5682434
P.O. Box 631 Telefax 6 5685412
Amman 11118 Telex 21475 igebo jo
E-Mail chemical@go.com.jo
Website www.obegichem.com
Kazakhstan
BASF Agency in Kasachstan Tel 3272 581728
ul. Tole bi 69, Whng. 33 3272 581734
480091 Almaty 3272 628447
Telefax 3272 639308
E-Mail basfkaz@asdc.kz
Korea, South
BASF Company Ltd. BCN 8-694-0 (operator)
KCCI Bldg., 9-11th floor 8-694-nnnn (direct line)
45, Namdaemunno Tel 2 3707-3100
4-ga, Jung-gu (Chairman’s Office (BK))
Seoul 100-743 Telefax 2 3707-3122
(Chairman’s Office (BK))
Kuwait
Mazidi Trading Company Tel 2467177
W.L.L. 2403771
Al Naki Building 2403772
Ali Al Salem Street, Telefax 2468982
Al-Mubarakiya 2403770
P.O. Box 228 Safat E-Mail mazidi@mazidi.com
13003 Safat Kuwait Website www.mazidi.com
409
Adresses
Latvia
BASF Agency for Estonia, BCN 8-7734-0 (operator)
Latvia and Lithuania 8-7734-nn (direct line)
Vilandes iela 1 Tel 7 830401
1010 Riga Telefax 7 930402
Lebanon
Obegi Chemicals S.A.L. Tel 1 900771-73
Express Way – Sea Side Telefax 1 900774
Dora District E-Mail chemicals@inco.com.lb
150 m from Uniterminal
Beirut
Lithuania
BASF AB Agency for Estonia, Tel 5 2107450
Latvia and Lithuania Telefax 5 2107455
Tauro g. 12
2100 Vilnius
Luxembourg
see under Belgium
Macedonia
BASF Agency Skopje Tel 2 220284
Mitropoliten Teodosij Telefax 2 220284
Gologonov 58 Telex 51726 basfsk mb
basf macedonia@east-europe.basf.org
91000 Skopje E-Mail
Malaysia
BASF Petronas Chemicals Tel 3 50316010
Sdn. Bhd. Telefax 3 50316010
C 802, Central Tower
Wisma Consplant
Jalan SS 16/4
Subang Jaya
47500 Petaling Jaya
Selangor Darul Ehsan
Malta
De Mattos & Sullivan Tel 21342348
Limited 21342349
47/1 Tigne Sea Front 21312953
Sliema SLM 15 Telefax 21342364
Malta E-Mail demattos@waldonet.net.mt
410
Adresses
Mauritius
Mauvilac Chemicals Ltd. Tel 2124607
Pailles Road Telefax 2124308
Les Pailles Telex 4358 mauvi iw
Mexico
BASF Mexicana S.A. BCN 8-545-2600 (operator)
de C.V. 8-545-nnnn (direct line)
Insurgentes Sur 975 Tel 55 5325-2600
Col. Ciudad de los Deportes Telefax 55 5325-2777
basf-mexicana@notes.basf-corp.com
Delegación Benito Juárez E-Mail
03710 México, D.F. Website www.basf.com/mexido
Apartado Postal 18-953
Col. Tacubaya
Delegación Miguel Hidalgo
11870 México, D.F.
Morocco
BASF Maroc S.A. BCN 8-671-400 (operator)
Société des Colorants, 8-671-nnn (direct line)
Matières Tel. 22 669-400
Chimiques pour l’Industrie 22 351158
et l’Agriculture 22 351183
7, Rue des Orchidées 22 355719
B. P. 2509 22 355766
20250 Ain Sebâa/Casablanca 22 355776
22 355785
Telefax 22 354832 (Management)
22 350136
22 350517
22 354831
E-Mail basf.maroc@basf-m-s.es
Myanmar
Myanmar Chemicals Co., Ltd. Tel 1 544930
No. 81, Telefax 1 545072
New University Avenue Road
Bahan Township
Yangon, Myanmar
411
Adresses
Nepal
M/s. Amaravati International Tel 1 272550-55
c/o Soaltee Hotel Limited Telefax 1 272201
P.O.B. No. 1481
Tahachal
Kathmandu
Netherlands
BASF Nederland B. V. BCN 8-70-7171 (operator)
Locatie Kadestraat 8-70-7nnn (direct line)
Kadestraat 1 Tel 26 371-7171
6811 CA Arnhem Telefax 26 371-7246
Postbus 1019 E-Mail info@basf.nl
6801 MC Arnhem Website www.basf.nl
New Zealand
BASF New Zealand Ltd. Tel 9 6330200
38 Mahunga Drive Telefax 9 6330265
Mangere Bridge
P.O. Box 407
Auckland, 1015
Nicaragua
IMASA Tel 2 660768
Edificio Malaga, 2 660489
módulo No. A 15, 2 664930
Plaza España Telefax 2 664930
Apartado Postal 2658 2 660768
Managua E-Mail imasa@imasa.com.ni
Norway
BASF AS Tel 66792100
Leangbukta 40 Telefax 66904755
Postboks 233 E-Mail basf-no@nordic.basf.org
1372 Asker Website www.basf.com/nordic
412
Adresses
Oman
Reem Scientific & Energy Tel 736239
Technologies LLC (Reset) 736573
Building No. 1329, Telefax 740423
Way No. 9342 740230
Al Waljat Street Telex 5542 omzest on
P.O. Box 879
Postal Code 113
Muscat
Pakistan
BASF Pakistan Tel 21 111550550
(Private) Limited 21 4549171
46-A, Block-6 21 4529174
P.E.C.H.S. 21 4520534
P.O. Box 3171 21 4539881
Karachi-75400 21 4530682
Telefax 21 4547815 (General)
21 4546552 (General)
21 4385505
(Controlling + Finance)
21 4524314
(Sales + Marketing)
E-Mail basfpak@cyber.net.pk
Panama
BASF Panama S.A. Tel 265-4224
Edificio Centro Comercial 265-4223
Plaza Balboa Telefax 265-4222
Local 30, Nivel 300 E-Mail basfpma@pty.com
Vía Israel, Punta Paitilla
Corregimiento de San Francisco
Ciudad de Panama
Paraguay
BASF Paraguaya S.A. Tel 21 498401
Independencia Nacional N° 811 Telefax 21 498403
Esquina Fulgencio R. Moreno
Edificio El Productor – Piso 12 y 14
Casilla de Correo N° 3364
Asunción
413
Adresses
Peru
BASF Peruana S.A. Tel 1 464-7400
Av. Oscar R. Benavides Telefax 1 464-2940
No. 5915, Callao 1 (Management)
Casilla 3911 1 464-6622
Lima 100 1 464-0302
(Sales and General)
1 4519611
(Prämix)
Philippines
BASF Philippines, Inc. Tel 49 549-0001
Main Office & Plant (ED) Telefax 49 549-1026
Road 5, Phase 1 GIZ
Carmelray Industrial Park 1
4028 Canlubang,
Calamba, Laguna
Poland
BASF Polska Sp. z o.o. BCN 8-762-777 (operator)
Aleje Jerozolimskie 154 8-762-nnn (direct line)
02-326 Warszawa Tel 22 5709-999 (operator)
22 5709-777 (operator)
22 5709-... (direct line)
Telefax 22 5709-599
E-Mail poczta@basf.pl
Website www.basf.pl
Portugal
BASF Portuguesa, Lda. Tel 22 6159600
Rua Manuel Pinto de Telefax 22 6177520
Azevedo, 626
4100-320 Porto
Apartado 1142
4102-001 Porto Codex
414
Adresses
Romania
BASF SRL BCN 8-772-100 (operator)
155, Calea Victoriei 8-772-nnn (direct line)
Bl. D1, Tronson 6-7, Et. 6 Tel 21 3134611
71102 Bucuresti-1 21 3134612
P.O. Box 1-305 21 3134613
70700 Bucuresti-1 Telefax 21 3100395
21 3100762
it.romania@east-europe.basf.org
E-Mail
Russia, Federation
BASF CIS Trading GmbH BCN 8-770-200 (operator)
Business Center Moskau 8-770-nnn (direct line)
Kadaschewskaja Tel 503 9569-170 (operator)
Nabereshnaja 14 503 2317-200
Korp. 3 503 2317-... (direct line)
119017 Moskau Telefax 503 9569-174
503 2317-201
Saudi Arabia
Yusuf Bin Ahmed Kanoo Tel 2 6673
BASF Division ext. 507 / 508 / 509
Medina Road km 9 Mobil-Tel 55676970
P.O. Box 812 Telefax 2 6655652 (direkt)
Jeddah 21421 2 6695801
(Kanoo Zentrale)
Telex 601039/1 ybak sj
E-Mail basf@jed.kanoosa.com
Singapore
BASF Singapore Pte. Ltd. BCN 8-65-3400 (operator)
7 Temasek Boulevard 8-65-nnnn (direct line)
35-01 Suntec Tower One Tel 63370330
Singapore 038987 Telefax 63340330
Website www.basf.com.sg
Slovakia
BASF Slovensko spol. s r.o. Tel 2 57101011
Frana Krála 35 Telefax 2 57101066
811 05 Bratislava Telex 92250 basfb c
415
Adresses
Slovenia
BASF Slovenija d.o.o. BCN 8-7736-0 (operator)
Dunajska cesta 111 a 8-7736-nn (direct line)
1000 Ljubljana Tel 15 897500
Telefax 15 685556
South Africa
BASF South Africa BCN 8-670-9 (operator)
(Pty.) Ltd. 8-670-nnn (direct line)
Business Center Tel 11 2542400
Johannesburg Telefax 11 2542431
852 16th Road 11 2542432
Midrand 1685 11 2542434
11 2542430 (Managing Dir.)
P.O. Box 2801
Halfway House 1685 11 3141690 (Human Res.)
Spain
BASF Curtex S.A. Tel 93 2616100
Carretera del Medio, 219 Telefax 93 2616109
08907 L’Hospitalet de Llobregat
Sri Lanka
BASF-Finlay (Pvt.) Ltd. Tel 1 423388
Finlay House 1 423389
186, Vauxhall Street Telefax 1 431400
Colombo 2 E-Mail basfsl@itmin.com
Sweden
BASF AB BCN 8-730-800 (operator)
– Plastics Nordic/Baltic 8-730-nnn (direct line)
– Chemicals Nordic/Baltic Tel 31 639-800
– Coatings & Pigments Telefax 31 639-900
– Nordic/Baltic E-Mail basf-se@nordic.basf.org
– Detergents & Automotive Website www.basf.com/nordic
– Nordic/Baltic
– Dispersions Nordic/Baltic
– Salts Nordic/Baltic
Haraldsgatan 5
413 14 Göteborg
416
Adresses
Switzerland
BASF (Schweiz) AG BCN 8-750-111 (operator)
Appital 8-750-nnn (direct line)
Postfach 99 Tel 1 7819-111
8820 Wädenswil/Au Telefax 1 7819-388
E-Mail info@basf.ch
Website www.basf.ch
Syrian Arab Republic Tel. (21) 27 38 12,
Obégi Chemicals S.A.S. Tel 21 4469731
Old El Bab Road 21 4469732
Nakkarin Area Telefax 21 4469540
B.P. 89 E-Mail chemalep@net.sy
Alep
Taiwan
BASF Taiwan Ltd. BCN 8-695-9 (operator)
Empire Building, 16th floor 8-695-nnn (direct line)
No. 87, Sung Chiang Road Tel 2 25187600
P.O. Box 3134 2 25068131
Taipei, Taiwan 3 4502113 (factory)
Telefax 2 25061554
2 25187700
Telex 21649 basftwan
E-Mail admin@basf-taiwan.com.tw
Website www.basf-taiwan.com.tw
Thailand
BASF (Thai) Ltd. Tel 2 6649222
Main Office Telefax 2 6649221
23rd floor, Emporium Tower E-Mail basf@samart.co.th
622 Sukhumvit Road
Klongton, Klongtoey
Bangkok 10110
G.P.O. Box 1283
Tunisia
BASF Tunisie S.A. Tel 71 425488
Z.I. Saint Gobain Telefax 71 425043
2033 Mégrine-Tunis 71 426120
71 427215
71 427713
E-Mail basf.tunisie@basf-tunisie.com
417
Adresses
Turkey
BASF Türk Tel 212 2516500-10 pbx
Kimya Sanayi ve Ticaret 212 2510037
Ltd. Sti. 212 2510041
Defterdar Yokusu No. 3 212 2494212
80040 Tophane-lstanbul Telefax 212 2441673
P.K. 424 212 2510064
80004 Karaköy-Istanbul
Ukraine
Repräsentanz der BASF BCN 8-776-200 (operator)
CIS GmbH in der Ukraine 8-776-nnn (direct line)
ul. Patrisa Lumumby 4/6 8-776-240 (Central telefax)
5. + 6. Etage
01042 Kiew
United Arab Emirates
BASF FZE Tel 4 8838773
Business Center Dubai Telefax 4 8838675
Jebel Ali Free Zone 4 8836787
P.O. Box 61309 E-Mail basfkanoo@west-asia.basf.org
Dubai
United Kingdom
BASF plc BCN 8-33-5983 (operator)
P.O. Box 4 8-33-nnnn (direct line)
Earl Road Tel 161 4856222
Cheadle Hulme 161 488-.... (direct line)
Cheadle Telefax 161 4860891
Cheshire SK8 6QG Telex 664006 basf g
Uruguay
BASF Uruguaya S.A. Tel 2 3551414
Camino Ariel 4620 2 3553183
12900 Montevideo 2 3553184
Casilla Correo 1925 Telefax 2 3558868
11000 Montevideo 2 3558869
Telex 22357 basf uy
418
Adresses
USA
BASF Corporation BCN 8-472-1111 (operator)
Wyandotte Site 8-472-nnnn (direct line)
1609 Biddle Avenue Tel 734 324-6000
Wyandotte, Michigan 48192
Uzbekistan
BASF Agency in Usbekistan Tel 712 548250
Beethovenstraße 3 712 545737
700064 Taschkent 712 548472
712 541879
Telefax 711 206231
E-Mail furkat@basf.com.uz
Venezuela
BASF Venezolana, S.A. Tel 212 256-3430
Multicentro Macaracuay, 212 256-4582
Piso 10 Telefax 212 256-3379
Avenida Principal de 212 256-0580
Macaracuay
Macaracuay, Caracas 1070
Apartados 70316 y 70317
Caracas 1071-A
Vietnam
Resident Representative Tel 8 8243833
Main Telefax 8 8243832
Office of BASF Singapore E-Mail basf_hcmc@hcm.vnn.vn
Pte. Ltd.
Saigon Trade Center, # 1701-1711
37, Ton Duc Thang Street
Dist. 1, Ho Chi Minh City
Yemen
M. S. G. Elsoffary & Sons Tel 1 218042
BASF Division Telefax 1 218042
P. O. Box 2142 Telex 2282 sofary ye
Sanaa
419
Adresses
Yugoslavia
BASF Aktiengesellschaft BCN 8-7733-100 (operator)
Predstavnistvo u Jugoslaviji 8-7733-nnn (direct line)
Djure Djakovica 78 Tel 11 772-999
11000 Beograd Telefax 11 751743
Zimbabwe
HiServe Chemicals (Pvt) Ltd. Tel 4 310162/3/4
10 Kenmark Crescent Telefax 4 331168
Bluff Hill Industrial Park
Faber Road
Harare
420
Adresses
Dialing code
for use from Germany to other countries.
Algeria 00213
Angola 00244
Argentine 0054
Australia 0061
Austria 0043
Bahrein 00973
Bangladesh 00880
Barbados 001809
Belarus 007
Belgium 0032
Bolivia 00591
Brazil 0055
Brunei 00673
Bulgaria 00359
Canada 001
Chile 0056
China 0086
Colombia 0057
Costa Rica 00506
Croatia 0038
Cuba 0053
Czech Republic 0042
Denmark 0045
Dominican Republic 001809
Ecuador 00593
Egypt 0020
El Salvador 00503
Estonia 00372
Ethiopia 00251
Finland 00358
France 0033
Ghana 00233
Greece 0030
Guatemala 00502
421
Adresses
Haiti 00509
Honduras 00504
Hongkong 00852
Hungary 0036
India 0091
Indonesia 0062
Iran 0098
Iraq 00964
Ireland 00353
Israel 00972
Italy 0039
Ivory Coast 00225
Jamaica 001809
Japan 0081
Jordan 00962
Kazakhstan 007
Kenya 00254
Korea, South 0082
Kuwait 00965
Latvia 00371
Lebanon 00961
Liberia 00231
Lithuania 00370
Macedonia 00389
Malawi 00265
Malaysia 0060
Malta 00356
Mauritius 00230
Mexico 0052
Morocco 00212
Myanmar 0095
Nepal 00977
Netherlands 0031
New Zealand 0064
Nicaragua 00505
Nigeria 00234
Norway 0047
422
Adresses
Oman 00968
Pakistan 0092
Panama 00507
Papua, New Guinea 00675
Paraguay 00595
Peru 0051
Philippines 0063
Poland 0048
Portugal 00351
Puerto Rico 001
Qatar 00974
Romania 0040
Russ. Federation 007
Saudi Arabia 00966
Singapore 0065
Slovakian Republic 0042
Slovenia 00386
South Africa 0027
Spain 0034
Sri Lanka 0094
Sweden 0046
Switzerland 0041
Syrian Arab Republic 00963
Taiwan 00886
Thailand 0066
Trinidad & Tobago 001809
Tunisia 00216
Turkey 0090
Ukraine 007
United Arab Emirates 00971
United Kingdom 0044
Uruguay 00598
USA 001
Uzbekistan 007
Venezuela 0058
Vietnam 0084
423
Adresses
Yemen 00967
Yugoslavia 0038
Zimbabwe 00263
424
Index
Abrasion resistance 230
Absolute air humidity 170
Absorption 150; 367
Absorption rate 167
Acetic acid 72f; 79f; 359
Acetic acid, density of 378f
Achromatic point 153
Acid dyes 155
Acid-forming vegetable tanning materials 86
Acid value 126; 133f; 142
Acrylic binders 180; 183f
Activated sludge 308
Adaptation 308
Addresses 400f
Adhesion 246f; 254; 264
Adsorption 367
Affinity 126
Air-blast dedusting machine 171
Airborne emissions 306f
Air-dry 367
Air-drying 36; 48; 169
Air humidity 170
Air humidity, production of 365
Alanine 19
Albumines 24
ALCA analytical methods 232
Aldehyde tanning agents 82; 119; 297
Aliphatic tanning materials 113
Alkalis 58; 257; 369f
Alkyl aryl sulfonates 129
Alkyl sulfates 129
Alkyl sulfonates 129
Aluminium 83; 85; 228; 304; 355; 359
Aluminium chloride 97; 359
Aluminium sulfate 97; 359
Aluminium tanning agents 94f; 277
American degrees of hardness 51
Amino acids 18f
Amino groups 18; 75; 277
Ammonia, density of 370
Ammonia nitrogen 304
Ammonium bicarbonate 110
Ammonium chloride 73; 359
Ammonium chloride, density of 384
425
Index
Ammonium sulfate 72f; 359; 384
Ammonium sulfate, density of 384
Amollan E 197
Amollan IP 163; 197
Amollan VC 198
Amollan Lustre VN 198
Ampere 313
Analytical strength 126
Analytics, dimensions 271
Animal fats 131
Animal oils 131
Antelope skins 45
AOX 289; 305; 308
AOX-free 137f; 148; 297
Apparent density 233; 239
Area yield 281
Arginine 19
Aromatic ether 114
ASA leather 205
Ash 126; 227; 232f; 237
Asparagine 19
Aspartic acid 19
Astacin Finish ARU TF 189f
Astacin Finish PF TF 190f
Astacin Finish PFM TF 190f
Astacin Finish PUD 189f
Astacin Finish PUM 189f
Astacin Finish PUMN TF 189f
Astacin Finish PW TF 189f
Astacin Finish SUSI TF 189f
Astacin Ground UH TF 189f
Astacin Hardener CN 196
Astacin Matting MA TF 193
Astacin Matting MT 193
Astacin Matting MTB 193
Astacin Top GA TF 193
Astacin Top LH TF 193
Astacin Top UT 193
ASTM methods 232f; 272
Astringency 126
Atomic bond 82
Atomic weight 355f
Auxiliary tanning agents 82; 103; 120
Automotive leather 211f; 281
426
Index
Back 25
Bacteria proteases 74
Barium sulfate 122; 177; 359
Barkometer 352
Barks 87
Barrigas 34
Bascal S 70f; 79; 101; 218f
Base coating agents 183
BASF Representatives 402
Basic colours 151
Basic constituents of synthetic tanning agents 114
Basic dyes 161
Basicity 98f; 232
Basicity increase 98
Basicity reduction 99
Basozym 1000 75; 219
Basozym C 10 75
Basozym CS 10 75; 220
Basozym L 10 69
Basozym S 20 59
Bastamol B 163
Bastamol DRN 163; 226
Bastamol K 93; 120; 122
Bastards 43
Basyntan AN 115
Basyntan ANF Liquid 115
Basyntan AN Liquid 115
Basyntan D 115; 121
Basyntan D Liquid 220
Basyntan DLE 115; 220
Basyntan DLE-T Liquid 115
Basyntan DLX-N 105; 116
Basyntan E 95; 220
Basyntan FC 112; 116; 121f; 220
Basyntan I 93; 116
Basyntan IZ 93; 116
Basyntan MLB 116
Basyntan MLB Liquid 116
Basyntan N 93; 116
Basyntan RS-3 93; 116
Basyntan SL 116
Basyntan TM Liquid 93; 115
Basyntan SW Liquid 106; 117
427
Index
Basyntan WL 117; 122
Basyntan WL Liquid 117
Basyntan X 117
Bating 74f
Bating agents 74f
Bating effect 74
Baumé 352f
Becerros 34
Beef tallow 134
Bees wax 134
Belly 25f; 236
Bend 25; 236
Big Packers 33
Binders, BASF 183f
Binders, thermoplastic 180
Binding capacity 54; 126
Binding rate 126
Binding strength 126
Biochemical Oxygen Demand 289; 308
Biological fatty substances 131; 143
Birch tar oil 206
Blankit AN 219
Blankit IN 219
Bleach-tanning agents 113; 122
Bleaching 121f
Bleaching auxiliaries 122
Bleaching methods 122
Bleeding 176
Blood vessels 17
BOD 304; 308
Books 390f
Borax 110f; 359
Boric acid 72f; 359
Box calf 205
Box side 205; 281
Branded Bulls 33
Branded Cows 33
Breaking 58
Breaking load 239
Bridge linkages in proteins 20
Brightening dyes 176
Bromocresol green 274f
Brush staining 164
BS standards (British) 272
428
Index
Buffalo 38f; 212f
Buffalo butts 39
Buffalo calves 39
Buffalo hides 38f
Buffering capacity 71
Buffing machine, through-feed type 171
Bulls 30f
Butadiene binders 177
Butchers 37
Butt 25f
Butt Branded Steers 33
Butt edge 25
Cabras 34
Cabrillonas 34
Cabritos 34
Calcium chloride 68; 359f
Calcium formate 101; 110; 360
Calcium hydroxide 63 ;71; 360
Calcium salts 50f; 359f
Calf skins 30f
Camel hides 45
Candela 313f
Cape hides 36
Carbonate hardness 50
Carboxyl group 18; 277
Carnauba wax 131f
Case-hardening 126
Casein 174f
Casein-free pigment preparations 178
Castor oil 131f
Catalysts 74
Cationic fatliquors 139f; 222
Cattle hides 30f
Cattle, sheep, goat, pig and horse inventories 46
Caustic soda solution, density of 369
Celsius 316; 348f
Ceresin 134
Chamois leather 83f
Charge indicator 276
Charge relations 277
Cheek 25
Chemical compounds 359
Chemical elements 355
429
Index
Chemical oxygen demand 289; 308
Chivos 34
Chromatic triangle for colour matching 151
Chrome alum 96f; 360
Chrome tanning agents 94f
Chromitan B 94f; 220
Chromitan FM 94f; 220
Chromitan FMS 94f
Chromitan MSN 94f
Chromium acetate 97
Chromium chloride 97; 360
Chromium sulfate 97f; 360
Chromium-IV-compounds 101f
Chromosa 40
CIE chromaticity diagram 11
CIELAB colour system 154
CIELAB total colour space 154
Classification of reptile skins 45
Cleansing agents 268
Clothing leather 205; 244f; 215
Coarsewools 36
Coconut oil 134
COD 304f
Cod liver oil 131f
Cold crack resistance 231
Cold crack temperature 182
Cold flex resistance 185f
Collagen 22f
Collectors 33
Colorado Side Branded Steers 33
Colour spectrum 150
Colouring by roll coater 164
Combination tannages 84
Combination tanning agent 95
Combings 36
Comebacks 42
Commercial classification of hides and skins 30f
Commercial grades of moistness 367
Commercial terms, abbreviations 394f
Compact binders 186f
Complex bond 82
Complexing agents 220f
Concentration 127
Concentration tables 65f; 369f
430
Index
Condensable tanning materials 86
Connective tissue 17
Consistency-regulating materials 60
Conversion factors, curing stages 280
Conversion tables, physical units 320f
Corial Binder AS 60; 69; 183f
Corial Binder BAN 183f
Corial Binder BU 192
Corial Binder DN 183f
Corial Binder IF 183f
Corial Binder OBN 183f
Corial Binder ON 183f
Corial Binder OK 183f
Corial Binder OT 183f
Corial EM Base Black DK 179
Corial EM Finish Black 179
Corial EM Finish G 194
Corial EM Finish ES 194
Corial EM Finish KN 194
Corial EM Finish M 195
Corial EM Top SL 195
Corial Hardener AZ 196
Corial Lacquer AW 195
Corial Matt Lacquer CMR 195
Corial Matt Lacquer NW 195
Corial Microbinder AM 183f
Corial Wax EBT 199
Corial Wax EG 199
Corial Wax G 199
Corial Wax H 199
Corial Wax S 199
Corial Wax SV 199
Corial Wax TA 199
Corium 17
Corneous layer 17
Corrected grain side leather 281
Cortex 17
Cortymol BAC 218
Cotton seed oil 131f
Country Locker Butcher 33
Country Mixed Lots 33
Country Ware 33
Courses of reaction in the production of fatliquors 144
Cow calves 39
431
Index
Cows 30f
Cross-linking agents 196
Cross-linking reactions 82
Crossbreds 36
Crude rubber crepe 262
Curing 48f
Curtain coater 203
Cutis 17
Cystein 19
Cystine 18f
Danger labels according to IMDG code 293f
Danger symbols 292
Dangerous goods 287f
Dangerous goods (GefStoffV) 292
Decaltal A-N 70f
Decaltal ES-N Liquid 70f
Decaltal N 70f; 78f; 101
Decaltal N Liquid 70f; 79f
Decaltal R 70f
Decimal multiples 314
Deer skins 45
Defoamer 197
Degradability 309
Degreasing methods 76
Degreasing temperatures 76
Degree of damage 265
Degree of sulfonation 141
Degree of tannage 127; 239; 242f
Deliming 70f
Deliming agents 70f
Deliming value 71
Denaturing 48
Denitrification 309
Density 369f
Density tables 369f
Densodrin CD 148
Densodrin EN 148; 222
Densodrin ENS 148
Densodrin OF 148; 222
Densodrin S 149
Densodrin SI 149; 222
Densodrin PS 149
Densotan A 117; 149; 162; 226
432
Index
Depilation 60f
Depth of shade 164f
Desorption 367
Detergents 268
Determination of areas 339
Determination of chrome 238
Determination of volumes 340
Diagram of hide sections 25f
Diagram of hide sections for the tanner 26
Dialing codes 421f
Difference value 238
Dihydroxydiphenyl sulfone 114
Diluents 200f
DIN methods 141; 227f; 253f
Discharge of effluents, regulations 304f
Disinfection 48f
Dispersion 366
Disulfide bridge 21f
Dolphin oil 131
Domestic cattle hides 30
Donkey 31
Dose (D) 295
Drum 56
Drum dyeing 150f
Drum painting 60
Drum, determination of volume 342
Drum, r.p.m. 344
Dry adhesion 185f; 264
Dry cleaning 261
Dry degreasing 76
Dry fatliquoring 136
Dry finishing, machines 171
Dry flex 185f
Dry rub fastness 261; 265
Dry weight 278f
Dry-drumming 58
Dry-salted weight 278f
Dry-salting 48
Dry solids 367
Drying 169
Drying methods for leather 169
Drying oils 131
Dumping site 309
Dust 309
433
Index
Dye solution 256
Dyeing 150f
Dyeing auxiliaries 162f; 226
Dyeing high quality leathers, parameters 165f
Dyeing methods 164
Dyeing parameters 165
Dyeing temperature 167
Dyes causing little or no colouring of wool 225
Dyes with good penetration 161
Dyes, classes of 255
Dyes, classification of 155
Dyes, homogeneity of 255
Dyes, solubility of 255
Earth colours 177
EDTA 54
Egg oil 134
Egg yolk 134
Einwohnergleichwert 309
Elasticity 266
Elastin 24
Elementary fibres 18
Elongation at break 239f
Emissions 297f
Emulsified proportion of fat 141
Emulsifiers 129f
Emulsifying proportion of fat 141
Emulsion 366
Emulsion types 129f
Energy 282; 315;
Energy flow 320
English degrees of hardness 51f
Environmental protection 285f
Environmental protection, basic terms 308f
Enzymatic liming process 62
Enzyme unit 75
Enzyme value 75
Epidermis 17
Epithelial tissue 17
Ester linkage bridges 21
Ester value 142
Esterification 144
Eukesolar Dyes (Powder) 223
Eukesolar Dyes 150 Liquid 176
434
Index
Eukesol Brilliant Black HSN 179
Eukesol Oil Ground 198
Eukesol Oil 4070 198
Eukesol Oil 4080 198
Eukesol Oil HP 198
Eukesol Oil SLP 198
Eukesol Oil SR 198
Eukesol Wax SFB 199
Eusapon A Conc. 226
Eusapon LPK-E 219
Eusapon P 219
Eusapon S 59; 68; 77; 130; 163; 218
Eusapon W 59; 130; 163; 219
Ex-Light Native Steers 33
Extra Lights 36
Extractable substances 237
Extremes 34
Face 25
Fahrenheit 348
Fastness properties of binders 184f
Fastness to acids 256
Fastness to alkali 257
Fastness to buffing 262
Fastness to diffusion 262
Fastness to dry and wet rubbing 261; 265
Fastness to dry cleaning 261
Fastness to fatliquors 258
Fastness to formaldehyde 258
Fastness to hot ironing 267
Fastness to hot plating 246
Fastness to hot steaming 267
Fastness to light 263
Fastness to perspiration 260
Fastness to solvents 260
Fastness to washing 259
Fastness to water 259
Fastness to water spotting 259
Fat solvents 76
Fat tail sheep skins 36
Fatliquor range of BASF 137f
Fatliquoring 131f
Fatliquoring auxiliaries 140
Fatliquoring substances 131f
435
Index
Fatliquors, structure of 143
Fatty substances, characteristic values 132f
Female goat skins 31
Fibre bundle 18
Fibres 18
Fibril 17f
Fibrous proteins 24
Fibrous structure of true skin 18
Filling 184f
Film properties 183f
Film values 181
Fineness of grain 79; 185f
Finish, general structure of 175
Finishes, classification of 173f
Finishing 173f
Finishing auxiliaries of BASF 196
Finishing effect 174
Finishing technique 173
Fish skins 44
Fixation 121f; 168
Fixed tannin 238f
Fixing agents 122; 162f
Flank 25f; 236
Flash point 295
Fleshing machine 124
Flexing endurance 266
Float length 167
Flocculation point 127
Flocculation value 127
Foal 31
Foam 366
Foam finish 173
Fogging test 270
Football leather 245
Force 315f
Fore and hind shanks 25
Formic acid 73; 79; 99; 168; 219; 360
Formic acid, density of 372f
Formulae for determining areas and perimeters 339
Formulae for determining volumes 340
Freiberger basicity 98
French degrees of hardness 51f
Fruits 89
Furniture leather 205; 213f; 249f
436
Index
Gallons and litres, conversion table 331f
Gelatine 302
German degree of hardness 51f
Glass transition temperature 182
Glazed kid 205
Globular proteins 24
Globulines 24
Glossary of terms relating to tanning and tanning agents 126
Glove leather 244
Glutamic acid 19f
Glutamine 19
Glycine 18f
Goats 46
Goat skins 30f
Grain 17
Grams (g) and ounces (oz), conversion table 335
Granulous layer 17
Grassers 35
Grasser skins 30
Gravimetric test 270
Greasy handle 137f
Green weight 30f; 278f
Ground nut oil 131f
Growths 90
Hair 17
Hair bulb 69
Hair cuticle 17
Hair papilla 17
Hair root 17
Hair root immunization 69
Hair shaft, cross-section of 17
Hair sheep 40
Hair-saving liming system 62; 69
Half back 26
Half-drying oils 131
Hardeners 196
Hardness, conversion of degrees of 51f
Harness leather 75
Hat sweat band leather 245
Head 25f
Heat flow 315f
Heat flow rate 338
Heat transfer resistance 338
437
Index
Heat, quantity of 319f
Heavies 36
Heavy Native Cows 33
Heavy Native Steers 33
Heidschnucke 31
“Heifer” goatskins 31
Heifers 30
Herring oil 131f
Hide powder 126f
Histidine 19
Hofmeister series 23
Horse grease 131f
Horse hides 30
Hydrochloric acid 72f; 79f; 99; 361
Hydrochloric acid, density of 381f
Hydrogen bridge linkage 22
Hydrogen sulfide hazards 307
Hydrolizable tanning materials 86
Hydrophilic components 143
Hydrophobic (non-polar) bridge linkage 22
Hydrophobic components 143
Hydroxylysine 19
Hydroxyethylated products 129
Hydroxyproline 20
Ignition temperature 307
Immergan A 108; 119; 139; 222
Immissions 309
Immission value 309
Immunization 62; 69
Implenal AP 101; 220
Implenal DC Liquid 101
Implenal DN 101
Inches and millimetres, conversion table 324
Indicators 273f
Indirect discharge of effluents, regulations 304f
Information 400f
Inner fibre surface area 18
Inorganic pigments 177f
Insole leather 206; 243
Insolubles 127
Instigator responsibility principle 310
Interfacial tension 147
International commercial terms, abbreviations of 394f
438
Index
International Fastness Union 252
Iodine colour value 142
Iodine value 142
Ion exchange resins 53
Ionic charge 141; 276
Ionic linkage 22
Iron 356
Irreversible stabilization 81
Isoelectric point 277
Isoleucine 19
ISO standards 272
IUC methods 227
IUC, IUP and IUF methods, suppliers of 272
IUF test methods 253
IUP methods 229
Japan wax 134
Journals 393
Kangaroo skins
Kaolin 69
Kelvin 313
Keratin 22f; 218
Kids 35f
Kid skins 31f
Kilogram 131f
Kilograms (kg) and pounds (lbs), conversion table 334f
Kips 36f
Lactic acid 72f; 79f
Lamb skins 35f
Land animal oils 131
Lead sulfate 122
Leather analysis 227f
Leather dyeings, testing of 258f
Leather dyes, testing of 255f
Leather fatliquoring agents, testing of 140
Leather fatliquoring methods 136
Leather fatliquoring products, classification of 136
Leather Ground F 183f
Leather market 32f
Leather production costs 282
Leather substance in ounces 325
Leather testing 227f
439
Index
Leaves 90
Lepton Binder GC 186f
Lepton Binder LF 186f
Lepton Binder NA 186f
Lepton Binder PA 186f
Lepton Binder SD 186f
Lepton Binder SPC 186f
Lepton colours 178f
Lepton Filler AF 198
Lepton Filler CEN 196
Lepton Filler FCG 196
Lepton Filler H 196
Lepton Filler K 196
Lepton Matting MF 196
Lepton Matting T 193
Lepton Paste VL 198
Lepton Top HT 194
Lepton Top LB 194
Lepton Wax 11 197
Lepton Wax 16 197
Lepton Wax 20 197
Lepton Wax A 197
Lepton Wax B 197
Lepton Wax P60 197
Lepton Wax CS 199
Lepton Wax WA 199
Leucine 19
Levelling power 259
Light fastness 249f; 263; 267
Light leather 244
Light Native Cows 33
Light Native Steers 33
Lights 36
Liming 60f
Liming auxiliaries 68f
Lime dissolving value 71
Lining leather 206; 243; 248f
Linseed oil 131f
Lipamin Liquor NO 139; 222
Lipamin Liquor SO 139; 222
Lipamin OK 130; 140; 163
Lipoderm Liquor A1 137; 221
Lipoderm Liquor 1C 137
Lipoderm Liquor CMG 139
440
Index
Lipoderm Liquor FP 138
Lipoderm Liquor LA 137; 221
Lipoderm Liquor PN 137; 221
Lipoderm Liquor PSE 138; 221
Lipoderm Liquor SAF 138
Lipoderm Liquor SC 139
Lipoderm Liquor SLW 138
Lipoderm Liquor SOL 138
Lipoderm Liquor WF 137; 221
Lipoderm N 130; 140; 163; 226
Lipoderm Oil N1 139
Liquids, combustible 291
Litres and gallons (Imp. and US), conversion table 331f
Load value 310
Loading agents 122
Löhlein-Volhard 75
Longs 36
Lubricants 69
Luganil Dyes 156f; 161; 225
Luganil Dyes Liquid 158f
Luganil Dyes Powder 156f
Lurazol Dyes 159f; 225
Lurazol Fur D Dyes 224
Lurazol Fur E Dyes 224
Luron Binder U 192
Luron Lustre CO 192
Luron Lustre E 192
Luron Lustre TE 192
Luron Matting 192
Luron Top 192
Luron Top AC 192
Lutan BN 95f; 220
Lutan CRN 95f; 220
Lutan DZ 95
Lutan FN 95f; 221
Lutensol ON 30 226
Lysine 19f
Macromolecules 18
Magnesium 356
Magnesium oxide 98f; 361
Magnesium salts 23; 50f; 238; 361f
Magnesium sulfate 50f; 122; 361
Main drain 299; 310
441
Index
Maize oil 131f
MAK value 295
Male goat skins 31
Mamones 34
Marine animal oils 131
Masking 100f
Masking agents 100f
Materials required for leather production 283
Matting agents 193
Maximum air humidity 170
Measures 313
Meatworks 42
Mediums 36
Medulla 17
Melanine 24
Menhaden oil 131f
Merino sheep skins 36; 42f
Metamerism 154; 213
Methionine 19
Methoxypropanol 200
Metre 313; 322f
Metres and yards, conversion table 323
Microfibrils 18
Migration fastness 178; 247f
Milk lambs 35
Milk of lime 63
Millimetres and inches, conversion table 324
Mineral colours 178
Mineral matter 140f
Mineral oils 131
Mineral tannage 94f
Mineral tanning agents 94f
Mineral tanning agents, amounts required 96
Mineral tanning salts 97f
Mixer 56
Mixtures of substances, definition of 366
Modifiers 199
Moistness 367
Moisture contents of leather 170
Mol 313
Molecular weight 359f
Mollescal AB 68
Mollescal AGN 69; 103
Mollescal BW 59
442
Index
Mollescal C Conc. 59
Mollescal HW 59; 69
Mollescal MF 61; 68f
Mollescal PA Liquid 68f
Mollescal LS 62; 68
Mollescal SF 61
Montan wax 131f
Mould fungus proteases 74
Mucous layer 17
Mule 31
Naphthalene 114
Naphthol 114
Native Bulls 33
Native hides 33
Neatsfoot oil 131f
Neck 25
Neutralization 109f
Neutralizing agents of BASF 112
Neutralizing agents, comparison table 111
Neutralizing agents, general 110
Neutral salt content 74
Neutrigan 99f; 111f; 221
Neutrigan MON 103
Nitrification 310
Nominal diameters, pressure reducers and water separators 345
Nonatos 34
Non-biological fatty substances 131
Non-carbonate hardness 50
Non-drying oils 131
Non-phenolic tanning agents 113
Non-tans 127
Normal dry state 367
Normal moist state 367
Novillitos 34
Novillos 34
Numbering system 252
Oil tanned leather 108
Oil tanning agents 119
Oils and fats, composition of 145f
Olation 127
Oleophobic 147
Olive oil 131f
443
Index
Opening up of the skin 60f
Ordinaries 37
Organic substance 140; 237
Ostrich skins 45
Ounces (oz) and grams (g), conversion table 335
Oxalic acid 79f; 99; 362
Oxalic acid, density 383
Oxen 30f
Oxidation bleach 121
Oxidation dyes 155
Oxidative liming 61
Paddle 58
Paddle dyeing 164
Paddle, determination of volume of 341
Painting auxiliaries 68
Painting process 60
Palm oil 131f
Pancreas proteases 74
Panzer-Niebuer 141
Papillary layer 17
Paraffin oil 134
Peccary 44
Pelt 28
Pelts, production of 57
Pelt ready for tanning 57
Pelt weight 279
Penetration 185f
Penetration of dyes 161; 258
Penetration time, waterproofness test 240
Penetrators 197
Penetrometer 240
Peptide bonds 18
Percentage of effluents obtained 303
Percentage of fatty acids in some oils and fats 146
Percentage of tans in total solubles 127
Permanent hardness 50
Peroxide value 142
Persians 36
pH value 273f
pH value, determination of 228; 273
Phase 366
Phenol 114; 304; 362
Phenolic tanning agents 113
444
Index
Phenylalanine 19
Phlobaphene-forming tanning materials 86
Phosphorus 228; 357
Picaltal Flakes 78f
Pickled lamb pelts 43
Pickled sheep skins 43
Pickling 78f
Pickling acids 79
Pig skins 44
Pigments 177f
Pigs 46
Pinhole 43f
Plasticizers 181
Plate release agents 196f
Poisoning 296; 307
Polishability 268
Pollution 61; 310
Polyacids 94
Polybases 94
Polymer binders, basic substances for 182
Polymer tanning agents 117f
Polymethaphosphate 101
Polyurethane binders 180; 189f
Potash alum 97; 362
Potassium dichromate 97; 102
Pounds (lbs) and kilograms (kg), conversion table 334
Power 315f
p.p.m. 51
Preparation of reduced chrome liquors 101f
Preparation of sample for analysis 234f
Pressure 315f
Pressure reducer 345
Pretanning agents 115
Primary sludge 301
Principal valence linkage 21
Products reducing swelling 68
Proline 20
Proteases 74
Protectol KLC 50 49
Proteides 24
Protofibril 17
Pull-up effect 198f
Pull-up oils and waxes 198f
Pure dye content 255
445
Index
Pure tan 85; 127
Pyrocatechol tanning materials 86
Pyrogallol tanning materials 86
Quality requirements 165; 242f
Quality requirements, provisional 246f
Rabbit skins 45
Railway traffic regulation 291
Rape oil 131
Raw hide and transparent leather 245
Raw hides and skins, production of 46
Raw skin 17f
Rawstock 28f
Rawstock, commercial classification of 30
Rawstock, international market 32f
Rawstock inventories 46
Réaumur 348
Recovery of wastes 302
Recycling 310
Reduced chrome liquors 101
Reducing agents 102
Reduction bleach 121
Reflection 150; 270
Reflectometric measurement 270
Regulation on Dangerous Goods 291f
Rejects 32
Relative air humidity 170
Relugan AME 117
Relugan D 118
Relugan DLF 118
Relugan DLF Liquid 118
Relugan GT 24 106; 119; 221
Relugan GT 50 106; 119; 221
Relugan GTP 106; 119
Relugan GTW 106; 119
Relugan GX 106; 119; 221
Relugan RE 106; 117
Relugan RF 107; 118; 221
Relugan RV 93; 107; 118
Relugan S 118
Relugan SE 107; 118
Renderers 33
Replacement tanning agents 82; 113
446
Index
Reptiles 44
Residual fat content 141
Resin tanning agents 118
Resistance to abrasion 269
Resistance to ageing 269
Resistance to detergents 268
Resistance to hot air 267
Resistance to solvents 268
Resistance to swelling 265
Retanning 113f
Reticular layer 17
Risk 290
Risk phrases 287
Roll coater 204
Rongalit C 224
Roots 90
Rub fastness tester 261f
Rules of mixing 354
Safety Data Sheets 285f
Salted weight 278f
Salt-free short-time curing 49
Salting out 127
Sammed weight 279
Samming machine 125
Sampling 227f; 235
Saponification value 132f; 142
Sardine oil 131f
Saturation capacity 170
Scales, size of 46
Schorlemmer basicity 98f
Screen printing 164
Seal oil 131
Sebaceous gland 17
Second 43f; 313
Secondary emulsion 130
Secondary sludge 301
Secondary valance linkages 22
Seedy 44
Self-basification 128
Serine 19f
Sesame oil 132
Setting out weight 279
Settling basin 310
447
Index
Settling substances 304; 310
Shark oil 132
Sharpening 58f
Shaved weight 279
Shaving machine 125
Shearlings 31
Sheep 46; 217
Sheep skins 30f
Shell 25
Shoe lining leather, quality requirements 243; 248
Shoe polish 268
Shoe upper leather 209f
Shoe upper leather, quality requirements 242f; 246
Short Merinos 36
Short pickling methods 78
Shoulder 25f; 235f
Shrinking temperature 83
SI base units 313f
SI units, derived 315f
Side 26; 235
Side chain peptide bridge linkage 21
Siligen HS 140
Slaughtering rate 47
Slinks 31
Sludge, types and treatment 301f
Small Packers 33
Soaked weight 279
Soaking 58f
Soaking auxiliaries 59
Soaking pit 58
Soaps 129
Soda (sodium carbonate) 48; 58f; 68; 98; 110; 362 365
Soda ash and soda cryst. equivalents 371
Soda ash, density of 371
Soda cryst., density of 371
Sodium acetate 101; 110f; 362; 365
Sodium acetate, density of 385
Sodium bicarbonate 110f; 362
Sodium bisulfite (hydrogen sulfite) 72; 101f; 362
Sodium bisulfite, density of 388
Sodium carbonate (soda) 48; 58f; 68; 98; 110; 362 365
Sodium chloride, density of 385
Sodium dichromate 97; 101; 362
Sodium formate 101; 110f; 363
448
Index
Sodium hydrogen sulfite (bisulfite) 72; 101f; 362
Sodium hydrosulfide (sulfhydrate) 60f; 363
Sodium sulfate, density of 386
Sodium sulfhydrate (hydrosulfide) 60f; 363
Sodium sulfide 60f; 363
Sodium sulfite 101f; 110f; 363
Sodium sulfite, density of 387
Sodium thiosulfate 102; 110f; 121; 364
Sodium thiosulfate, density of 389
Sole leather 85; 206; 243; 283
Solubility in water 359f
Solubility of lime 64
Solution 366
Solvents 77; 200f
Solvent soaps 76
Sorption 367
Soybean oil 132
Spectral range 150
Sperm oil 134
Split tear strength 239
Splitting machine 124
Spraying machine and spraygun 202
Spray staining 164; 175f
Spraying units 345
Springer 31
Square feet to square metres, conversion table 328
Square metres to square feet, conversion table 327
Stability to acids 256
Stability to electrolytes 141
Stability to hard water 257
Staking machine, jaw-type 171
Standard physical units 313f
Starch 60; 69
Stress, mechanical 315f
Structure of hair 17
Structure of polypeptide chain 20
Structure of skin 17f
Subcutis 17
Suckling, kid 31
Suede 207; 243
Sugary matter 87f
Sulfate 305
Sulfating 144
Sulfide 305
449
Index
Sulfide and hydrated lime liquor 61
Sulfide lime liquor 60
Sulfite 305
Sulfited tanning materials 128
Sulfiting 144
Sulfochlorination 144
Sulfonated oils 129f
Sulfuric acid 73; 79f; 99f; 364
Sulfuric acid, density of 375f
Super Combings 36
Surface properties 173
Suspended matter 310
Suspension 366
Sweat gland 17
Sweating 62
Swollen condition 58
Symbols 292f; 315f
Synthetic tanning agents of BASF 115f
Synthetic tanning agents 91
TA 310
TA-Luft 306
Tamol GA 103; 112; 120; 162; 226
Tamol M 93; 112; 120; 162; 226
Tamol MB 93; 112; 120; 162
Tamol NA 112; 120; 162; 221
Tamol NNOL 103; 112; 120; 122; 162; 226
Tamol PM Liquid 162
Tamol R 163; 226
Tanned weight 279
Tanner’s tools 123
Tannery effluents 304
Tannery machines 124
Tanning 81f
Tanning agents, amounts required 85
Tanning and binding value 128
Tanning auxiliaries 103
Tanning methods 84
Tanning of chrome leather 94f
Tans 127f
Technical leather 207; 245
Technical literature 390f
Temperature, conversion table 348f
Temperature interval 338
450
Index
Temporary hardness 53
Tensile strength, measurement of 239
Terneros 34
Tertiary emulsion 130
Test methods 227f
Test methods, standards of 272
Test results, evaluation of 237
Thermal capacity 337
Thermal conductivity 337
Thermometer readings, conversion table 348f
Thermoplastic binders 180f
Thickening agents 73
Threonine 19
Through-feed dyeing machine 168
Titration acidity 126
TOC 311
TOD 311
Top coating agents 193f
Toros 34
Total hardness 50f
Total nitrogen content 238
Total solids 127f
Total solubles 91; 127f
Toxicity 296
Toxic substances 304
Transparent leather 245
Trilon types of BASF 53f
Triple helix 18
Tropocollagen 18
Tryptophane 19
Turkey red oils 129
Twaddle, readings of 352f
Types of leather, terms applied 205f
Tyrosine 19
Units, derived 315
Units of area 326f
Units of length 322f
Units of volume 329f
Units of weight 333f
Units outside the SI 317f
Units, conversion tables 320f
Upholstery leather 213f; 244; 249
Ursol Dyes of BASF 223
451
Index
Use value 84
Vacas 34
Valine 19
Vaquillonas 34
Vegetable fats 131
Vegetable oils 131
Vegetable tanned upper leather 243f
Vegetable tannin extracts 91f
Vegetable tanning materials 86f
VESLIC methods 272
Vessels for the beamhouse 56
Vibration staking machine 171
Viscosity 319f; 336
Volatile matter 143; 233f
Volume 329f
Waste water 299f; 311
Waste water treatment 299f
Water 50f
Water absorption 240f
Water consumption in leather production 55
Water content 237; 278
Water hardness 50f
Water-in-oil emulsion 129
Water-insoluble fatliquors 139
Water penetration 240f
Water-polluting substances 300f
Waterproofness test 240f
Water-repellents (general) 147f
Water-repellent treatment 147f
Water separators 345f
Water softening 53
Water suitable for leather production 55
Water vapour permeability 241; 247f
Waxes 196f
Weight classes 30f
Weight relations 278
Weights 333
Weight yield 281
Western Glovers 36
Wet adhesion 264
Wet degreasing 76
Wet rub fastness 261f
452
Index
Wet white leather 105f
Wettability with water 147
Wetting agents 59; 129f; 283
Whale oil 131
White lime 61
White point 153
White-tanning agents 113
Whole hide 26; 235
Wood oil 132
Woods 88f
Wool grease 131f
Wool sheep 35f
Wool skins 31f
World leather production 45
World time zones 398f
Yearlings 34f
Yield value 239
Young goats, female 31
Y-shaped vessel 56
Zirconium sulfate 97; 364
453
Index
454